Article In:
Asia-Pacific Language Variation: Online-First Articles

Variation in Asian and Pacific Islander North American English

What the patterns of scholarship demonstrate about race in sociolinguistics

ORCID logo | University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
| University of MichiganAnn Arbor
| The Chinese University of Hong Kong
| University of Toronto
Within sociolinguistic research on English variation, Asian and Pacific Islander North Americans (APINAs) are frequently described as an “understudied population” due to the relative lack of published studies that analyze these speakers or communities. This structured literature review systematically characterizes the state of the field from a variationist perspective. We find that while studies on APINAs have become more common in the last decade, different groups are represented unevenly in the existing literature; for example, East Asian groups are commonly represented in the literature in contrast to South Asian groups. Furthermore, the vast majority of variationist studies analyze phonetic and phonological variation, with a theoretical focus on identifying participation in race-based varieties (ethnolects/raciolects) or in sound changes of the “majority” population, rather than using the inherent diversity of APINA groups to bring attention to how race and ethnicity are being used in Sociolinguistics.
Keywords: Asian American, Asian and Pacific Islander, variationist, race and ethnicity, North American English
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
    • 1.1Race and ethnicity in sociolinguistics research
    • 1.2Asian Pacific Islander North Americans (APINAs)
    • 1.3Background literature
  • 2.Methods
    • Criteria formulation
    • Data collection
    • Coding
  • 3.Findings
    • 3.1Qualitative overview
    • 3.2Quantitative analysis
      • 3.2.1Linguistic variable results
      • 3.2.2Demographics results
        • 3.2.2.1Geographic location
        • 3.2.2.2Ethnic origin
  • 4.Discussion
    • 4.1Linguistic variables and demographics
    • 4.2Nuanced understandings of race and ethnicity
    • 4.3Speaker norms and “good speaker” ideologies
    • 4.4Limitations
    • 4.5Panning out
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
References (151)
References
Adamson, H. D., & Regan, Vera M. (1991). The acquisition of community speech norms by Asian immigrants learning English as a second language: A preliminary study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13 (1), 1–22. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Babel, Molly, & Russell, Jamie (2015). Expectations and speech intelligibility. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 137 (5), 2823–2833. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baugh, John (2000). Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic pride and racial prejudice. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bauman, Carina (2013). Social evaluation of Asian accented English. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 19 (2). [URL]
(2016). Speaking of sisterhood: A sociolinguistic study of an Asian American sorority [Doctoral dissertation, New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Becker, Kara (2014a). (r) we there yet? The change to rhoticity in New York City English. Language Variation and Change, 26 (2), 141–168. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2014b). The social motivations of reversal: Raised bought in New York City English. Language in Society, 43 (4), 395–420. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Becker, Kara, & Wong, Amy W. (2010). The Short-a system of New York City English: An update. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 15 (2). [URL]
Benor, Sarah B. (2010). Ethnolinguistic repertoire: Shifting the analytic focus in language and ethnicity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 14 (2), 159–183. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bigelow, Lauren, Gadanidis, Tim, Schlegl, Lisa, Umbal, Pocholo, & Denis, Derek (2020). Why are wasteyutes a ting? University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 26 (2). [URL]
Boberg, Charles (2004). Ethnic patterns in the phonetics of Montreal English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 8 (4), 538–568. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012). Ethnic dialects in North American English. In T. Nevalainen & E. C. Traugott (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of English (pp. 538–548). Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2014). Ethnic divergence in Montreal English. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue Canadienne de Linguistique, 59 (1), 55–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brozovsky, Erica S. (2020). Taiwanese Texans: A sociolinguistic study of language and cultural identity [Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin]. DOI logo
Bucholtz, Mary, & Hall, Kira (2005). Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic approach. Discourse Studies, 7 (4–5), 585–614. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cargile, Aaron C. (1997). Attitudes toward Chinese-accented speech: An investigation in two contexts. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16 (4), 434–443. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cheng, Andrew (2016). A survey of English vowel spaces of Asian American Californians. UC Berkeley PhonLab Annual Report, 12 (1), 348–384. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2018). 1.5 Generation Korean Americans: Consonant and vowel production of two late childhood arrivals. UC Berkeley PhonLab Annual Report 2018, 14 1, 189–220. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2020a). Accent and ideology among bilingual Korean Americans [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley]. [URL]
(2020b). ‘School’ versus ‘Home’: California-based Korean Americans’ context-dependent production of /u/ and /oʊ/. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 26 (1). [URL]
Cheng, Andrew, & Cho, Steve (2021). The effect of ethnicity on identification of Korean American speech. Languages, 6 (4), 186. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cheng, Andrew, Faytak, Matthew, & Cychosz, Margaret (2016). Language, race, and vowel space: Contemporary Californian English. Proceedings of the Forty-Second Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 63–78.Google Scholar
Cheng, Lauretta S. P., Burgess, Danielle, Vernooij, Natasha, Solís-Barroso, Cecilia, McDermott, Ashley, & Namboodiripad, Savithry (2021). The problematic concept of native speaker in Psycholinguistics: Replacing vague and harmful terminology with inclusive and accurate measures. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 1, 715843. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cheshire, Jenny, Kerswill, Paul, Fox, Sue, & Torgersen, Eivind (2011). Contact, the feature pool and the speech community: The emergence of Multicultural London English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15 (2), 151–196. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013). Ironic Blackness as masculine cool: Asian American language and authenticity on YouTube. Applied Linguistics, 34 (5), 592–612. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chung, May F. (2014). The Hmong among many: A descriptive analysis of a Southern interlanguage variety. New Ways of Analyzing Variation 43, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL.Google Scholar
Clothier, Josh (2019). A Sociophonetic analysis of /l/ darkness and Lebanese Australian ethnic identity in Australian English. In S. Calhoun, P. Escudero, M. Tabain, & P. Warren (Eds.), Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Melbourne, Australia 2019 (pp. 1888–1892). Australasian Speech Science and Technology Association Inc.Google Scholar
Clothier, Josh, & Loakes, Debbie (2018). Coronal stop VOT in Australian English: Lebanese Australians and mainstream Australian English speakers. Proceedings of the 17th Australasian International Conference on Speech Science and Technology, 13–16.Google Scholar
Cox, Felicity, & Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2011). Timing differences in the VC rhyme of standard Australian English and Lebanese Australian English. In W-S. Lee (Ed.), Proceedings of the 17th international congress of phonetic sciences, Hong Kong (pp. 528–531). City University. [URL]
D’Onofrio, Annette (2019). Complicating categories: Personae mediate racialized expectations of non-native speech. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 23 (4), 346–366. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
D’Onofrio, Annette, & van Hofwegen, Janneke (2020). Nisei style: Vowel dynamism in a second-generation Japanese American community. The Publication of the American Dialect Society, 105 (1), 79–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Day, Iyko (2008). Must all Asianness be American? The census, racial classification, and Asian Canadian emergence. Canadian Literature, 199 1, 45–70.Google Scholar
Denis, Derek (2021). Raptors vs. Bucktees: The Somali influence on Toronto slang . Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 42 (6), 565–578. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dionne, Danielle, & Chang, Charles B. (2021). Linguistic unity and diversity among Asian Americans in Boston. New Ways of Analyzing Variation 49, Austin, Texas. [URL]
Dokhtzeynal, Shima (2020). Second-generation Persians’ participation in the Oklahoma dialect [Master’s thesis, Oklahoma State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Drager, Katie, Kirtley, M. Jolley, Grama, James, & Simpson, Sean (2013). Language variation and change in Hawai’i English: KIT, DRESS, and TRAP. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 19 (2), 6.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope (2008). Where do ethnolects stop? International Journal of Bilingualism, 12 (1–2), 25–42. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Espiritu, Yen L. (1992). Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging institutions and identities. Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Fought, Carmen (2002). Chicano English in context. Springer.Google Scholar
(2006). Language and ethnicity. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gates, Shivonne (2018). Why the long FACE?: Ethnic stratification and variation in the London diphthong system. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 24 (2). [URL]
Goellnicht, Donald C. (2000). A long labour: The protracted birth of Asian Canadian literature. Essays on Canadian Writing, 72 1, 1–41.Google Scholar
Green, Lisa (1998). Remote past and states in African-American English. American Speech, 73 (2), 115–138. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hall-Lew, Lauren (2009). Ethnicity and phonetic variation in a San Francisco neighborhood [Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
(2010). Ethnicity and sociolinguistic variation in San Francisco. Language and Linguistics Compass, 4 (7), 458–472. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013). ‘Flip-flop’ and mergers-in-progress. English Language and Linguistics, 17 (2), 359–390. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hall-Lew, Lauren, & Starr, Rebecca L. (2010). Beyond the 2nd generation: English use among Chinese Americans in the San Francisco Bay Area. English Today, 26 (3), 12–19. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hall-Lew, Lauren, Cardoso, Amanda, & Davies, Emma (2021). Social meaning and sound change. In E. Moore, L. Hall-Lew, & R. J. Podesva (Eds.), Social meaning and linguistic variation: Theorizing the third wave (pp. 27–53). Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hall, Chad (2021). Uncovering a focused Lebanese American English ethnolect in Dearborn Michigan. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences: Illinois Working Papers. [URL]
Hall, Lisa K. (2015). Which of these things is not like the other: Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders are not Asian Americans, and all Pacific Islanders are not Hawaiian. American Quarterly, 67 (3), 727–747. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hanna, David B. (1997). Do I sound “Asian” to you?: Linguistic markers of Asian American identity. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 4 (2), 141–153.Google Scholar
Hibiya, Junko (2005). /-t, d/ deletion in Japanese-Canadian English. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 10 (2), 117–128.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Michol F. (2010). The role of social factors in the Canadian Vowel Shift: Evidence from Toronto. American Speech, 85 (2), 121–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Michol F., & Walker, James A. (2010). Ethnolects and the city: Ethnic orientation and linguistic variation in Toronto English. Language Variation and Change, 22 (1), 37–67. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Holliday, Nicole (2016). Intonational variation, linguistic style and the Black/Biracial experience [Doctoral dissertation, New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
(2021). Intonation and referee design phenomena in the narrative speech of Black/Biracial men. Journal of English Linguistics, 49 (3), 283–304. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Holliday, Nicole R. (2019). Multiracial identity and racial complexity in sociolinguistic variation. Language and Linguistics Compass, 13 (8), e12345. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hosoda, Megumi, Stone-Romero, Eugene F., & Walter, Jennifer N. (2007). Listeners’ cognitive and affective reactions to English speakers with standard American English and Asian accents. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 104 (1), 307–326. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hundt, Marianne, & Staicov, Adina (2018). Identity in the London Indian diaspora: Towards the quantification of qualitative data. World Englishes, 37 (2), 166–184. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ito, Rika (2010). Accommodation to the local majority norm by Hmong Americans in the Twin Cities, Minnesota. American Speech, 85 (2), 141–162. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jaspers, Jürgen (2008). Problematizing ethnolects: Naming linguistic practices in an Antwerp secondary school. International Journal of Bilingualism, 12 (1–2), 85–103. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jeon, Lisa (2017). Korean ethnic orientation and regional linguistic variability in the multiethnic context of Houston. In C. J. Jenks & J. W. Lee (Eds.), Korean Englishes in transnational contexts (pp. 93–114). Springer International Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, Eden A. (2011). Sociophonetics of Hmong American English in Minnesota [Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Kibria, Nazli (1998). The contested meanings of “Asian American”: Racial dilemmas in the contemporary US. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 21 (5), 939–958. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kim, Dot-Eum (2021). Korean Americans in GA: [+back] on the B/OW/T. New Ways of Analyzing Variation 49, Austin, TX. [URL]
Kim, Ji Young, & Wong, Nicole (2020). (Divergent) Participation in the California Vowel Shift by Korean Americans in Southern California. Languages, 5 (4), 53. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kirkham, Sam (2011). The acoustics of coronal stops in British Asian English. Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 1102–1105. [URL]
(2017). Ethnicity and phonetic variation in Sheffield English liquids. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 47 (1), 17–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Klein, Wendy L. (2007). Punjabi Sikh families in Los Angeles: Discourses of identification and youth socialization practices [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Kotsinas, Ulla-Britt (1988). Immigrant children’s Swedish – A new variety? Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development, 9 1, 129–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kutlu, Ethan (2020). Now you see me, now you mishear me: Raciolinguistic accounts of speech perception in different English varieties. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 0 (0), 1–15. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kutlu, Ethan, & Wiltshire, Caroline (2020). Where do negative stereotypes come from? The case of Indian English in the USA. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 5 1, 74–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kutlu, Ethan, Tiv, Mehrgol, Wulff, Stefanie, & Titone, Debra (2020). Diverse environments and their impact on accentedness judgments. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 148 1, 2652–2652. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Labov, William (1972). Some principles of linguistic methodology. Language in Society, 1 (1), 97–120. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2001). Principles of linguistic change: Vol. 2. Social factors. Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Lambert, Kirsten, Alam, Farhana, & Stuart-Smith, Jane (2007). Investigating British Asian accents: Studies from Glasgow. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 1509–1512. [URL]
Lee, Christopher (2008). Enacting the Asian Canadian. Canadian Literature, 199 1, 28–44.Google Scholar
Lee, Erika (2015). The making of Asian America: A history. Simon & Schuster. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, Hi-Kyoung (2000). Korean Americans as speakers of English: The acquisition of general and regional features [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Lee, Jennifer, & Ramakrishnan, Karthick (2020). Who counts as Asian. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 43 (10), 1733–1756. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, Jess (2019). Many dimensions of Asian American pan-ethnicity. Sociology Compass, 13 (12), e12751. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, Jinsok (2016). The participation of a Northern New Jersey Korean American community in local and national language variation. American Speech, 91 (3), 327–360. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lev-Ari, Shiri, & Keysar, Boaz (2010). Why don’t we believe non-native speakers? The influence of accent on credibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46 (6), 1093–1096. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Li, Lanlan (2021). A sociophonetic study of Filipino English in Winnipeg, Canada [Doctoral dissertation, University of Manitoba]. [URL]
Lien, Pei-te, Conway, M. Margaret, & Wong, Janelle (2003). The contours and sources of ethnic identity choices among Asian Americans. Social Science Quarterly, 84 (2), 461–481. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lindemann, Stephanie (2003). Koreans, Chinese or Indians? Attitudes and ideologies about non-native English speakers in the United States. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7 (3), 348–364. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lippi-Green, Rosina (2012). English with an accent: Language, ideology and discrimination in the United States (2nd ed.). Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lo, Adrienne, & Reyes, Angela (2009). Introduction: On Yellow English and other perilous terms. In Angela Reyes & Adrienne Lo (Eds.), Beyond Yellow English: Toward a linguistic anthropology of Asian Pacific America (pp. 3–20). Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Malhi, Rebecca L., Boon, Susan D., & Rogers, Timothy B. (2009). ‘Being Canadian’ and ‘Being Indian’: Subject positions and discourses used in South Asian-Canadian women’s talk about ethnic identity. Culture & Psychology, 15 (2), 255–283. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McGowan, Kevin B. (2015). Social expectation improves speech perception in noise. Language and Speech, 58 (4), 502–521. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mendoza-Denton, Norma, & Iwai, Melissa (1993). “They speak more Caucasian”: Generational differences in the speech of Japanese-Americans. Proceedings of the First Annual Symposium about Language and Society, 58–67.Google Scholar
Meyerhoff, Miriam, & Stanford, James N. (2015). “Tings Change, all Tings Change”: The changing face of sociolinguistics with a global perspective. In D. Smakman & P. Heinrich (Eds.), Globalising Sociolinguistics: Challenging and expanding theory (pp. 1–15). Routledge.Google Scholar
Meyerhoff, Miriam, Ballard, Elaine, Charters, Birchfield Alexandra, & Watson, Catherine I. (2021). The Auckland Voices Project: Language change in a changing city. In Pam Peters & Kate Burridge (Eds.), Exploring the ecology of World Englishes in the twenty-first century: Language, society and culture (pp. 345–368). Edinburgh University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miranda, Adrienne (2013). The Interaction between social network and ethnic identity: θ and ð dental stopping in Goan-Canadian speakers of English. Language in India, 13 (10), 496–516.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. (2001). The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nagy, Naomi, Chociej, Joanna, & Hoffman, Michol F. (2014). Analyzing ethnic orientation in the quantitative sociolinguistic paradigm. Language & Communication, 35 1, 9–26. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nagy, Naomi, Hoffman, Michol F., & Walker, James A. (2020). How do Torontonians hear ethnic identity? Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics, 42 1. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Newman, Michael, & Wu, Angela (2011). “Do you sound Asian when you speak English?” Racial identification and voice in Chinese and Korean Americans’ English. American Speech, 86 (2), 152–178. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nguyen, Emily (2019). Linguistic variation and social practice in a Vietnamese American student organization [Doctoral dissertation, New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Noels, Kimberly A., Kil, Hali, & Fang, Yang (2014). Ethnolinguistic orientation and language variation: Measuring and archiving ethnolinguistic vitality, attitudes, and identity. Language and Linguistics Compass, 8 (11), 618–628. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Okamoto, Dina, & Mora, G. Cristina (2014). Panethnicity. Annual Review of Sociology, 40 (1), 219–239. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Onosson, Sky, Rosen, Nicole, & Li, Lanlan (2019). Ethnolinguistic differentiation and the Canadian Shift. In Sasha Calhoun, Paola Escudero, Marija Tabain, & Paul Warren (Eds.), Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 368–372). Australasian Speech Science and Technology Association Inc.Google Scholar
Park, Jerry Z. (2008). Second-Generation Asian American pan-ethnic identity: Pluralized meanings of a racial label. Sociological Perspectives, 51 (3), 541–561. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Presnyakova, Irina (2020). Linguistic variation and ethnicity in a super-diverse community: The case of Vancouver English [Doctoral dissertation, Simon Fraser University]. [URL]
Presnyakova, Irina, Umbal, Pocholo, & Pappas, Panayiotis (2018). The effect of heritage on Canadian Shift in Vancouver. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 24 (2). [URL]
Ravindranath, Maya (2015). Sociolinguistic variation and language contact. Language and Linguistics Compass, 9 (6), 243–255. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reed, Paul E. (2016). Sounding Appalachian: /aɪ/ Monophthongization, Rising pitch accents, and rootedness. [Doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
(2020). The Importance of rootedness in the study of Appalachian English: Case study evidence for a proposed rootedness metric. American Speech, 95(2), 203–226. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reyes, Angela (2005). Appropriation of African American slang by Asian American youth. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9 (4), 509–532. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reyes, Angela., & Lo, Adrienne (Eds.). (2009). Beyond Yellow English: Toward a linguistic anthropology of Asian Pacific America (pp. xvii, 401). OUP Oxford; New York. [URL]
Rickford, John R. (1985). Ethnicity as a sociolinguistic boundary. American Speech, 60 (2), 99–125. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1999). Phonological and grammatical features of African American Vernacular (AAVE). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Riebold, John M. (2015). The social distribution of a regional change: /Æg, ϵg, eg/ in Washington State [Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Rosa, Jonathan, & Flores, Nelson (2017). Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective. Language in Society, 46 (5), 621–647. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rosen, Nicole, & Li, Lanlan (2016). Ethnicity and rurality in the Prairies: The case of /æ/. Annual Meeting of the Canadian Linguistic Association, University of Calgary. [URL]
Ross, Brooke, Ballard, Elaine, & Watson, Catherine (2021). New Zealand English in Auckland: A Papatoetoe snapshot. Asia-Pacific Language Variation, 7 (1), 62–81. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rubin, Donald L. (1992). Nonlanguage factors affecting undergraduates’ judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. Research in Higher Education, 33 (4), 511–531. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Samant, Sai (2009). Arab American ethnicity and the Northern Cities Shift. Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 35 (1), 293. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2010). Arab Americans and sound change in southeastern Michigan. English Today, 26 (3), 27–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011). Arab American youth and sound change in Southeastern Michigan [Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Satyanath, Shobha (2022). Standard-ness, national ideologies and their embedding in ‘sociolinguistic theory’. Asia-Pacific Language Variation, 8 (2), 174–205. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shankar, Shalini (2008a). Speaking like a model minority: “FOB” styles, gender, and racial meanings among Desi teens in Silicon Valley. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 18 (2), 268–289. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2008b). Desi land: Teen culture, class, and success in Silicon Valley. Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Sharma, Devyani (2011). Style repertoire and social change in British Asian English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15 (4), 464–492. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sharma, Devyani, & Sankaran, Lavanya (2011). Cognitive and social forces in dialect shift: Gradual change in London Asian speech. Language Variation and Change, 23 (3), 399–428. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sheydaei Baghdadeh, Iman (2021). Local and ethnic identities: MENA-Americans’ linguistic behavior and ethnic rootedness [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Wisconsin – Madison]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Smedley, Audrey, & Smedley, Brian D. (2005). Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race. American Psychologist, 60 (1), 16–26. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stevens, Gillian, Ishizawa, Hiromi, & Grbic, Douglas (2015). Measuring race and ethnicity in the censuses of Australia, Canada, and the United States: Parallels and paradoxes. Canadian Studies in Population [ARCHIVES], 42 (1–2), 13–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stoddart, Jana, Upton, Clive, & Widdowson, John D. (1999). Sheffield dialect in the 1990s: Revisiting the concept of NORMs. In Paul Foulkes & Gerard Docherty (Eds.), Urban voices: Accent studies in the British Isles (pp. 72–89). Routledge.Google Scholar
Tuan, Mia (1998). Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites?: The Asian ethnic experience today. Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). 2015–2019 American Community Survey. [URL]
Umbal, Pocholo (2016). The Canadian Shift among Filipinos in Metro Vancouver [Master’s thesis, Arts & Social Sciences: Department of Linguistics]. [URL]
(2021). Filipinos Front too! A sociophonetic analysis of Toronto English /u/-fronting. American Speech, 96 (4), 397–423. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Walker, James A., & Hoffman, Michol F. (2016). To have and have got: Ethnolinguistic variation in possession and deontic modality. Annual Meeting of the Canadian Linguistic Association, University of Calgary. [URL]
Wassink, Alicia B. (2016). The vowels of Washington State. The Publication of the American Dialect Society, 101 (1), 77–105. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wing, Jean Y. (2007). Beyond Black and White: The model minority myth and the invisibility of Asian American Students. The Urban Review, 39 (4), 455–487. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wölck, Wolfgang (1984). Sounds of a City: Types and characteristics of the speech of Buffalo and its ethnic groups. New York Folklore, 10 (3), 7–22.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt, & Kohn, Mary E. (2015). Regionality in the development of African American English. In Jennifer Bloomquist, Lisa J. Green, & Sonja L. Lanehart (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of African American language (pp.140–160). Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wolfram, Walt, & Schilling, Natalie (2015). Ethnicity and American English. In Walt Wolfram & Natalie Schilling (Eds.), American English: Dialects and variation (pp. 183–216). Wiley.Google Scholar
Wong, Amy W. (2007). Two vernacular features in the English of four American-born Chinese. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 13 (2), 217–230.Google Scholar
(2010). New York City English and second generation Chinese Americans. English Today, 26 (3), 3–11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012). The lowering of raised-THOUGHT and the low-back distinction in New York City: Evidence from Chinese Americans. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 18 (2). [URL]
(2014). GOOSE-fronting among Chinese Americans in New York City. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 20 (2). [URL]
(2015). Diverse linguistic resources and multidimensional identities: A study of the linguistic and identity repertoires of second generation Chinese Americans in New York City [Doctoral dissertation, New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Wong, Amy W., & Hall-Lew, Lauren (2014). Regional variability and ethnic identity: Chinese Americans in New York City and San Francisco. Language & Communication, 35 1, 27–42. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wong, Phoebe, & Babel, Molly (2017). Perceptual identification of talker ethnicity in Vancouver English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 21 (5), 603–628. [URL]. DOI logo
Zheng, Mingzhe (2017, November 2–5). Ethnic identity construction: The interlocutor effect on TOOTH in Chinese American English. New Ways of Analyzing Variation 46, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
(2018). You have to learn to adapt: A sociolinguistic study of Chinese Americans in the “Asian City” of Southeast Michigan [Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University].
Zipp, L., & Staicov, A. (2016). English in San Francisco Chinatown: Indexing identity with speech rhythm? In E. Seoana & C. Suárez Gómez (Eds.), World Englishes: New theoretical and methodological considerations (pp. 205–228). John Benjamins Publishing Company.Google Scholar