Article published in:
Australian Review of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 34:2 (2011) ► pp. 148–165

Beyond ENL norms in ELF use

A cognitive perspective on ELF output

This article presents a cognitively-oriented account of the qualitative differences between ENL (English as a native language) and ELF (English as a lingua franca) users. Based on the declarativeprocedural model of second language acquisition, it examines the linguistic and sociolinguistic implications of ELF users’ dependence on their declarative memory system, with its corresponding explicit knowledge and controlled processes of cognition subserving the production of their output in English. In contrast, it points to ENL speakers’ output being sustained by both their procedural and declarative memory systems, with their corresponding implicit and explicit knowledge types that interact through automatic and controlled processes. Given the differences in the underlying cognitive resources and processes in output production, it concludes that the prevailing practice of assessing ELF users’ output in relation to ENL norms is simply irrelevant.
Keywords: ELF, controlled/automatic processes, declarative/procedural memory systems, ENL
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Published online: 01 January 2011
https://doi.org/10.1075/aral.34.2.02alp

Full-text

Beyond ENL norms in ELF use
References

References

Alptekin, C.
(2002) Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT Journal, 56, 57–64. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010) Redefining multicompetence for bilingualism and ELF. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 20, 95–110. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Alptekin, C. & ErÇetin, G.
(2009) Assessing the relationship of working memory to L2 reading: Does the nature of comprehension process and reading span make a difference? System, 37, 627–639. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010) The role of L1 and L2 working memory in literal and inferential comprehension in L2 reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 33, 206–219. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bex, T.
(2008) ‘Standard’ English, discourse grammars and English language teaching. In M. A. Locher & J. Strassler (Eds.), Standards and norms in the English language (pp. 221–238). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Bowden, H. W., Gelfand, M. P., Sanz, C. & Ullman, M. T.
(2010) Verbal inflectional morphology in L1 and L2 Spanish: A frequency effects study examining storage versus composition. Language Learning, 60, 44–87. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Breiteneder, A.
(2009) English as a lingua franca in Europe: An empirical perspective. World Englishes, 28, 256–269. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bybee, J. L.
(2006) From usage to grammar: The mind’s response to repetition. Language, 82, 711–733. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Canagarajah, A. S.
(2007) Lingua franca English, multilingual communities, and language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 91, 923–939. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Clahsen, H. & Felser, C.
(2006) Grammatical processing in language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 3–42. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Clahsen, H., Felser, C., Neubauer, K., Sato, M. & Silva, R.
(2010) Morphological structure in native and nonnative language processing. Language Learning, 27, 21–43. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Clyne, M. & Sharifian, F.
(2008) English as an international language: Challenges and possibilities. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 1–28. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cook, V. J.
(1999) Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 185–210. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M.
(1997) Beyond explicit rule learning: Automatizing second language morphosyntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 195–221.Google Scholar
(2000) The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 499–533.Google Scholar
(2003) Implicit and explicit learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long, (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313–348). Malden, MA: Blackwell. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2009) Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning. In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of language teaching (pp. 119–138). Oxford: Blackwell. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M. & Juffs, A.
(2005) Cognitive considerations in L2 learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 437–454). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Durrant, P. & Schmitt, N.
(2009) To what extent do native and non-native writers make use of collocations? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 27, 157–177.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C.
(2005) At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 305–352. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2006) Selective attention and transfer phenomena in L2 acquisition: Contingency, cue competition, salience, interference, overshadowing, blocking, and perceptual learning. Applied Linguistics, 27, 164–194. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. & Cadierno, T.
(2009) Constructing a second language: Introduction to the special section. Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 27, 111–139. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R., Loewen, S., Elder, C., Erlam, R., Philp, J. & Reinders, H.
(2009) Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Field, J.
(2008) Bricks or mortar: Which parts of the input does a second language listener rely on? TESOL Quarterly, 27, 411–432. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Grosjean, F.
(2008) Studying bilinguals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Halford, G. S., Phillips, S., Wilson, W. H., McCredden, J. M., Andrews, G., Birney, D., Baker, R. & Bain, J. D.
(2007) Relational processing is fundamental to the central executive and is limited to four variables. In N. Osaka, R. H. Logie & M. D’Esposito (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of working memory (pp. 261–280). Oxford: Oxford University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, M.
(2004) Commentary: Input processing as a theory of processing input. In B. VanPatten (Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research, and commentary (pp. 79–92). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Harrington, M. & Sawyer, M.
(1992) L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 25–38. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
House, J.
(2009) Introduction: The pragmatics of English as a lingua franca. Intercultural Pragmatics, 27, 141–145.Google Scholar
Hulstjin, J.
(2002) Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge. Second Language Research, 27, 193–223. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hyltenstam, N. & Abrahamsson, N.
(2000) Who can become native-like in a second language? All, some, or none? Studia Linguistica, 27, 150–166. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J.
(2000) The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
(2007) The author replies. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 414–415. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kachru, B.
(Ed.) (1992) The other tongue: English across cultures (2nd ed). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Kuiper, K., Columbus, G. & Schmitt, N.
(2009) The acquisition of phrasal vocabulary. In S. Foster-Cohen (Ed.), Language acquisition (pp. 216–240). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Leeser, M. J.
(2007) Learner-based factors in L2 reading comprehension and processing grammatical form: Topic familiarity and working memory. Language Learning, 57, 229–270. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mackey, A., Adams, R., Stafford, C. & Winke, P.
(2010) Exploring the relationship between modified output and working memory capacity. Language Learning, 60, 501–533. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mauranen, A.
(2009) Chunking in ELF: Expressions for managing interactions. Intercultural Pragmatics, 27, 217–233.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, J., Tanner, D., Pitkanen, I, Frenck-Mestre, C., Inoue, K., Valentine, G. & Osterhout, L.
(2010) Brain potentials reveal discrete stages of L2 grammatical learning. Language Learning, 60, 123–150. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Morgan-Short, K., Sanz, C., Steinhauer, K. & Ullman, M.T.
(2010) Second language acquisition of gender agreement in explicit and implicit training conditions: An event-related potential study. Language Learning, 27, 154–193. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Munro, M. J., Derwing, T. M. & Morton, S. L.
(2006) The mutual intelligibility of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 111–131.Google Scholar
Nayar, P. B.
(1997) ESL/EFL dichotomy today: Language politics or pragmatics? TESOL Quarterly, 27, 9–37. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Papadopoulou, D.
(2005) Reading-time studies of second language ambiguity resolution. Second Language Research, 27, 98–120. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paradis, M.
(2004) A neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2009) Declarative and procedural determinants of second languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pickering, L.
(2006) Current research on intelligibility in English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 27, 219–233.Google Scholar
Pinker, S. & Ullman, M. T.
(2002) The past and future of the past tense. TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 27, 456–463. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Prodromou, L.
(2008) English as a lingua franca: A corpus-based analysis. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Sabourin, L. & Haverkort, M.
(2003) Neural substrates of representation and processing of a second language. In R. van Hout, A. Hulk, F. Kuiken & R. Towell, (Eds.), The lexicon-syntax interface in second language acquisition (pp. 175–195). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Seidlhofer, B.
(2001) Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a lingua franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 27, 133–158. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2004) Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 27, 209–239.Google Scholar
(2009a) Accommodation and the idiom principle in English as a lingua franca. Intercultural Pragmatics, 27, 195–215.Google Scholar
(2009b) Common ground and different realities: World Englishes and English as a lingua franca. World Englishes, 27, 236–245. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sun, R., Sluarz, P. & Terry, C.
(2005) The interaction of the explicit and the implicit in skill learning: A dual process approach. Psychological Review, 27, 159–192. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ullman, M. T.
(2001) The neural basis of lexicon and grammar in first and second language: The declarative/procedural model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 27, 105–122.Google Scholar
(2004) Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative vs. procedural model. Cognition, 27, 231–270. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2005) A cognitive neuroscience perspective on second language acquisition: The declarative/procedural model. In C. Sanz (Ed.), Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory and practice (pp. 141–178). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Van Hell, J. G. & Tokowicz, N.
(2010) Event-related brain potentials and second language learning: Syntactic processing in late L2 learners at different L2 proficiency levels. Second Language Research, 26, 43–74. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Walter, C.
(2004) Transfer of reading comprehension skills to L2 is linked to mental representations of text and to L2 working memory. Applied Linguistics, 25, 315–339. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2007) First- to second-language reading comprehension: Not transfer, but access. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 27, 14–32. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Wray, A.
(2002) Formulaic language and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 4 other publications

Alptekin, Cem
2013. English as a lingua franca through a usage-based perspective: merging the social and the cognitive in language use. Language, Culture and Curriculum 26:2 ► pp. 197 ff. Crossref logo
Hall, Christopher J.
2017.  In The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca, ► pp. 74 ff. Crossref logo
Houghton, Stephanie Ann
2018.  In Beyond Native-Speakerism, ► pp. 223 ff. Crossref logo
Oliver, Rhonda, Honglin Chen & Stephen Moore
2016. Review of selected research in applied linguistics published in Australia (2008–2014). Language Teaching 49:4 ► pp. 513 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 20 september 2021. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.