A wealth of studies has shown that more proficient monolingual speakers are better at predicting upcoming information during language comprehension. Similarly, prediction skills of adult second language (L2) speakers in their L2 have also been argued to be modulated by their L2 proficiency. How exactly language proficiency and prediction are linked, however, is yet to be systematically investigated. One group of language users which has the potential to provide invaluable insights into this link is bilingual children. In this paper, we compare bilingual children’s prediction skills with those of monolingual children and adult L2 speakers, and show how investigating bilingual children’s prediction skills may contribute to our understanding of how predictive processing works.
Article outline
What is prediction?
How are prediction and proficiency related?
What do we know about prediction skills in monolingual children?
What do we know about prediction skills in adult L2 speakers?
What do we (not) know about bilingual children?
How can research with bilingual children inform L2 predictive processing accounts?
Altmann, G. T. M., & Kamide, Y. (1999). Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition, 73, 247–264.
Altmann, G. T. M., & Mirković, J. (2009). Incrementality and prediction in human sentence processing. Cognitive Science, 33(4), 583–609.
Borovsky, A., Elman, J. L., & Fernald, A. (2012). Knowing a lot for one’s age: Vocabulary skill and not age is associated with anticipatory incremental sentence interpretation in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112(4), 417–436.
Brouwer, S., Özkan, D., & Küntay, A. C. (2019). Verb-based prediction during language processing: The case of Dutch and Turkish. Journal of Child Language, 46(1), 80–97.
Brouwer, S., Sprenger, S., & Unsworth, S. (2017). Processing grammatical gender in Dutch: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 159, 50–65.
Candan, A., Küntay, A. C., Yeh, Y., Cheung, H., Wagner, L., & Naigles, L. R. (2012). Language and age effects in children’s processing of word order. Cognitive Development, 27(3), 205–221.
Choi, Y., & Trueswell, J. C. (2010). Children’s (in)ability to recover from garden paths in a verb-final language: Evidence for developing control in sentence processing. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106(1), 41–61.
Cooper, R. M. (1974). The control of eye fixation by the meaning of spoken language. Cognitive Psychology, 6(1), 84–107.
Dell, G. S., & Chang, F. (2014). The P-chain: Relating sentence production and its disorders to comprehension and acquisition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 369(1634), 20120394.
Dijkgraaf, A., Hartsuiker, R. J., & Duyck, W. (2017). Predicting upcoming information in native-language and non-native language auditory word recognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(5), 917–930.
Dijkgraaf, A., Hartsuiker, R. J., & Duyck, W. (2019). Prediction and integration of semantics during L2 and L1 listening. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(7), 881–900.
Dussias, P. E., Valdés Kroff, J. R., Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., & Gerfen, C. (2013). When gender and looking go hand in hand. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(2), 353–387.
Federmeier, K. D. (2007). Thinking ahead: The role and roots of prediction in language comprehension. Psychophysiology, 44(4), 491–505.
Federmeier, K. D., & Kutas, M. (2005). Aging in context: Age-related changes in context use during language comprehension. Psychophysiology, 42(2), 133–141.
Ferreira, F., & Chantavarin, S. (2018). Integration and prediction in language processing: A synthesis of old and new. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27, 443–448.
Foucart, A., Martin, C. D., Moreno, E. M., & Costa, A. (2014). Can bilinguals see it coming? Word anticipation in L2 sentence reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(5), 1461–1469.
Gambi, C., Gorrie, F., Pickering, M. J., & Rabagliati, H. (2018). The development of linguistic prediction: Predictions of sound and meaning in 2- to 5-year-olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 173, 351–370.
Gambi, C., Jindal, P., Sharpe, S., Pickering, M. J., & Rabagliati, H. (2020). The relation between preschoolers’ vocabulary development and their ability to predict and recognize words. Child Development.
Gambi, C., Pickering, M. J., & Rabagliati, H. (2016). Beyond associations: Sensitivity to structure in pre-schoolers’ linguistic predictions. Cognition, 157, 340–351.
Genesee, F., Paradis, J., & Crago, M. (2004). Dual language development and disorders: A handbook on bilingualism and second language learning. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Gibson, E., Bergen, L., & Piantadosi, S. T. (2013). The rational integration of noisy evidence and prior semantic expectations in sentence interpretation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(20), 8051–8056.
Grüter, T., Lau, E., & Ling, W. (2018). L2 listeners rely on the semantics of classifiers to predict. In A. B. Bertolini & M. J. Kaplan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 303–316). Cascadilla Press.
Grüter, T., Rohde, H., & Schafer, A. J. (2014). The role of discourse-level expectations in non-native speakers’ referential choices. In W. Orman & M. J. Valleau (Eds.), Proceedings of the 38th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 179–191). Cascadilla Press.
Hale, J. (2001). A probabilistic Earley parser as a psycholinguistic model. In Proceedings of the second meeting of North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Technologies (pp. 159–166). Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics.
Havron, N., de Carvalho, A., Fiévet, A. C., & Christophe, A. (2019). Three-to four-year-old children rapidly adapt their predictions and use them to learn novel word meanings. Child Development, 90(1), 82–90.
Hickok, G. (2012). Computational neuroanatomy of speech production. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13, 135–145.
Hoff, E., Core, C., & Shanks, K. F. (2020). The quality of child-directed speech depends on the speaker’s language proficiency. Journal of Child Language, 47, 132–145.
Hopp, H. (2013). Grammatical gender in adult L2 acquisition: Relations between lexical and syntactic variability. Second Language Research, 29(1), 33–56.
Hopp, H. (2015). Semantics and morphosyntax in L2 predictive sentence processing. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 53(3), 277–306.
Hopp, H. & Lemmerth, N. (2018). Lexical and syntactic congruency in L2 predictive gender processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(1), 171–199.
Huettig, F. (2015). Four central questions about prediction in language processing. Brain Research, 1626, 118–135.
Huettig, F., & Brouwer, S. (2015). Delayed anticipatory spoken language processing in adults with dyslexia – Evidence from eye-tracking. Dyslexia, 21(2), 97–122.
Huettig, F., & Janse, E. (2016). Individual differences in working memory and processing speed predict anticipatory spoken language processing in the visual world. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(1), 80–93.
Huettig, F., & Mani, N. (2016). Is prediction necessary to understand language? Probably not. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(1), 19–31.
Huettig, F., & Pickering, M. J. (2019). Literacy advantages beyond reading: Prediction of spoken language. Trends in Cognitive Science, 23(6), 464–475.
Hurtado, N., Grüter, T., Marchman, V. A., & Fernald, A. (2014). Relative language exposure, processing efficiency and vocabulary in Spanish–English bilingual toddlers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(1), 189–202.
Ito, A., Corley, M., & Pickering, M. J. (2018). A cognitive load delays predictive eye movements similarly during L1 and L2 comprehension. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(2), 251–264.
Johnson, E. K. (2005). Grammatical gender and early word recognition in Dutch. In A. Brugos, M. R. Clark-Cotton, & S. Ha (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 320–30). Cascadilla Press.
Kamide, Y., Scheepers, C., & Altmann, G. T. (2003). Integration of syntactic and semantic information in predictive processing: Cross-linguistic evidence from German and English. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 32, 37–55
Kochari, A. R. & Flecken, M. (2019). Lexical prediction in language comprehension: a replication study of grammatical gender effects in Dutch. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(2), 239–253.
Kootstra, G. J., & Doedens, W. J. (2016). How multiple sources of experience influence bilingual syntactic choice: Immediate and cumulative cross-language effects of structural priming, verb bias, and language dominance. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(4), 710–732.
Kukona, A., Braze, D., Johns, C. L., Mencl, W. E., Van Dyke, J. A., Magnuson, J. S., Pugh, K. R., Shankweiler, D. P., Tabor, W. (2016). The real-time prediction and inhibition of linguistic outcomes: Effects of language and literacy skill. Acta Psychologica, 171, 72–84.
Kuperberg, G. R., & Jaeger, T. F. (2016). What do we mean by prediction in language comprehension?Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(1), 32–59.
Lemmerth, N. & Hopp, H. (2019). Gender processing in simultaneous and successive bilingual children: Cross-linguistic lexical and syntactic influences. Language Acquisition, 26(1), 21–45.
Levy, R. (2008). Expectation-based syntactic comprehension. Cognition, 106(3), 1126–1177.
Lew-Williams, C., & Fernald, A. (2007). Young children learning Spanish make rapid use of grammatical gender in spoken word recognition. Psychological Science, 18(3), 193–198.
Lijewska, A. (2020). Cognate processing effects in bilingual lexical access. In R. Heredia & A. Cieślicka (Eds.), Bilingual lexical ambiguity resolution (pp. 71–95). Cambridge University Press.
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621.
Lukyanenko, C., & Fisher, C. (2016). Where are the cookies? Two-and three-year-olds use number-marked verbs to anticipate upcoming nouns. Cognition, 146, 349–370.
Mani, N., Daum, M. M., & Huettig, F. (2016). “Pro-active” in many ways: Developmental evidence for a dynamic pluralistic approach to prediction. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(11), 2189–2201.
Mani, N., & Huettig, F. (2012). Prediction during language processing is a piece of cake – but only for skilled producers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38(4), 843–847.
Mani, N., & Huettig, F. (2014). Word reading skill predicts anticipation of upcoming spoken language input: A study of children developing proficiency in reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126, 264–279.
Martin, C. D., Thierry, G., Kuipers, J. R., Boutonnet, B., Foucart, A., & Costa, A. (2013). Bilinguals reading in their second language do not predict upcoming words as native readers do. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(4), 574–588.
McLaughlin, B. (1978). Second-language acquisition in childhood. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Meir, N., Parshina, O., & Sekerina, I. A. (2020). The interaction of morphological cues in bilingual sentence processing: An eye-tracking study. In M. Brown & A. Kohut (Eds.), Proceedings of the 44th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 376–389). Cascadilla Press.
Melançon, A., & Shi, R. (2015). Representations of abstract grammatical feature agreement in young children. Journal of Child Language, 42(6), 1379–1393.
Mishra, R. K., Singh, N., Pandey, A., & Huettig, F. (2012). Spoken language-mediated anticipatory eye movements are modulated by reading ability: Evidence from Indian low and high literates. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 5(1).
Mitsugi, S., & MacWhinney, B. (2016). The use of case marking for predictive processing in second language Japanese. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(1), 19–35.
Nieuwland, M. S., Politzer-Ahles, S., Heyselaar, E., Segaert, K., Darley, E., Kazanina, N., Von Grebmer Zu Wolfsthurn, S., Bartolozzi, F., Kogan, V., Ito, A., Mézière, D., Barr, D. J., Rousselet, G. a, Ferguson, H. J., Busch-Moreno, S., Fu, X., Tuomainen, J., Kulakova, E., Husband, E. M., … Huettig, F. (2018). Large-scale replication study reveals a limit on probabilistic prediction in language comprehension. ELife, 7, e33468.
Norris, D., McQueen, J. M., & Cutler, A. (2016). Prediction, Bayesian inference and feedback in speech recognition. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(1), 4–18.
Özge, D., Küntay, A., & Snedeker, J. (2019). Why wait for the verb? Turkish speaking children use case markers for incremental language comprehension. Cognition, 183, 152–180.
Pickering, M. J., & Gambi, C. (2018). Predicting while comprehending language: A theory and review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(10), 1002–1044.
Pickering, M. J., & Garrod, S. (2013). An integrated theory of language production and comprehension. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(4), 329–347.
Roesch, A. D., & Chondrogianni, V. (2016). “Which mouse kissed the frog?” Effects of age of onset, length of exposure, and knowledge of case marking on the comprehension of wh-questions in German-speaking simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children. Journal of Child Language, 43(3), 635–661.
Rommers, J., Meyer, A. S., & Huettig, F. (2015). Verbal and nonverbal predictors of language-mediated anticipatory eye movements. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 77, 720–730.
Sorace, A. (2005). Syntactic optionality in language development. In L. Cornips & K. Corrigan (Eds.), Syntax and variation: Reconciling the biological and the social (pp. 55–80). John Benjamins.
Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M., Eberhard, K., & Sedivy, J. (1995). Integration of visual and linguistic information during spoken language comprehension. Science, 268(5217), 1632–1634.
Unsworth, S. (2013a). Assessing age of onset effects in (early) child L2 acquisition. Language Acquisition, 20(2), 74–92.
Unsworth, S. (2013b). Assessing the role of current and CUMULATIVE exposure in simultaneous bilingual acquisition: The case of Dutch gender. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16(1), 86–110.
Unsworth, S. (2016). Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development. In E. Nicoladis & S. Montanari (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan (pp. 103–122). Mouton de Gruyter.
Unsworth, S., Brouwer, S., de Bree, E., & Verhagen, J. (2019). Predicting bilingual preschoolers’ patterns of language development: Degree of non-native input matters. Applied Psycholinguistics, 40(5), 1189–1219.
Van Bergen, G., & Flecken, M. (2017). Putting things in new places: Linguistic experience modulates the predictive power of placement verb semantics. Journal of Memory and Language, 92, 26–42.
Van Dijk, C. N., Dijkstra, T., & Unsworth, S. (under review). Cross-linguistic influence during online sentence processing in bilingual children.
Van Dijk, C. N., van Wonderen, E., Koutamanis, E., Kootstra, G. J., Dijkstra, T., & Unsworth, S. (in press). Cross-linguistic influence in simultaneous bilingual children: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child Language.
Van Gompel, R., & Arai, M. (2018). Structural priming in bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(3), 448–455.
van Heugten, M., & Shi, R. (2009). French-learning toddlers use gender information on determiners during word recognition. Developmental Science, 12(3), 419–425.
Van Petten, C., & Luka, B. J. (2012). Prediction during language comprehension: Benefits, costs, and ERP components. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 83(2), 176–190.
2024. Morphosyntactic predictive processing in adult heritage speakers: effects of cue availability and spoken and written language experience. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 39:1 ► pp. 118 ff.
Koch, Eva Marie, Bram Bulté, Alex Housen & Aline Godfroid
2023. The predictive processing of number information in subregular verb morphology in a first and second language. Applied Psycholinguistics 44:5 ► pp. 750 ff.
Schlenter, Judith
2023. Prediction in bilingual sentence processing: How prediction differs in a later learned language from a first language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26:2 ► pp. 253 ff.
2022. Prediction in challenging situations: Most bilinguals can predict upcoming semantically-related words in their L1 source language when interpreting. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 25:5 ► pp. 801 ff.
2021. Verb-Mediated Prediction in Bilingual Toddlers. Frontiers in Psychology 12
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 9 november 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.