This chapter addresses the role of proficiency in a prior non-native language (L2 proficiency) on transfer in third language learning. It discusses some methodological considerations and gaps in previous research, while also bringing up conceptual difficulties in defining, operationalizing and measuring L2 proficiency. An empirical study is presented on the role played by overall proficiency in L2 German on the occurrence of transfer in L3 English written production in Spanish/ Catalan bilingual learners (n = 73). The statistical treatment of the data relied on an ANCOVA with number of transferred items as the dependent variable and L2 proficiency as the independent variable. Biological age and proficiency in the target language (L3 proficiency) were used as covariates in this analysis.
Abunuwara, E. (1992). The structure of the trilingual lexicon. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 4(4), 311–322. .
Ahukana, J., Lund, N., & Gentile, J. (1981). Inter- and intra-lingual interference effects in learning a third language. Modern Language Journal, 65, 281–287. .
Baker, C., & Prys-Jones, S. (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Bardel, (2015). Lexical cross-linguistic influence in third language development. In H. Peukert (Ed.), Transfer effects in multilingual language development (Hamburg Studies on Linguistic Diversity 4) (pp. 111–128). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bardel, C., & Lindqvist, C. (2007). The role proficiency and psychotypology in lexical cross-linguistic influence. A study of a multilingual learner of Italian L3. In M. Chini, P. Desideri, M. E. Favilla, & G. Pallotti (Eds.), Atti del VI Congresso di Studi dell’Associazione Italiana di Linguistica Applicata. Perugia: Guerra Editore.
Bardel, C., & Falk, Y. (2007). The role of the second language in third language acquisition: the case of Germanic syntax. Second Language Research, 23(4), 459–484.
Bardel, C., & Falk, Y. (2012). The L2 status and the declarative/procedural distinction. In J. Cabrelli Amaro, S. Flynn, & J. Rothman (Eds.), Third language acquisition in adulthood (Studies in Bilingualism 46) (pp. 61–78). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bouvy, C. (2000). Towards the construction of a theory of cross-linguistic transfer. In J. Cenoz & U. Jessner (Eds.), English in Europe. The acquisition of a third language (pp. 143–156). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J. (2000). Research on multilingual acquisition. In J. Cenoz & U. Jessner (Eds.), English in Europe. The acquisition of a third language (pp. 39–53). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J. (2001). The effect of linguistic distance, L2 status and age on cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition (pp. 8–20). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J. (2008) Plenary talk given at the International Conference on Multilingualism. Castellón: Spain.
Chumbow, B. (1981). The Mother Tongue Hypothesis in a multilingual setting. In Proceedings of the 5th Congress of the International Congress of l’Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée, Montréal August 1978 (pp. 42–55). Québec: Laval University Press.
Çiğdem, S. (2006). Third language acquisition. Turkish-German bilingual students’ acquisition of English word order in a German educational setting. Berlin: Waxman.
Cook, V. (1992). Multicompetence and the learning of many languages. Language Culture and Curriculum, 8(2), 93–98.
Cook, V. (1996). Evidence for multicompetence. Language Learning, 42, 557–591.
Cook, V. (2005). Multicompetence: Black-hole or worm-hole? Plenary presented at the Second Language Research Forum, New York, NY.
Coppieters, R. (1987). Competence differences between native and near-native speakers. Language, 63(3), 544–573. .
Coste, D. (1997). Multilingual and multicultural competence and the role of school. Language Teaching, 30(2), 90–93. .
Counsil of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Language: Learning, teaching, assessment. Strasbourg.
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222–251. .
Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issues. TESOL Quarterly, 14(2), 175–187. .
Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority children. In California State Department of Education (Eds.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3–48). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Centre.
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222–251. .
Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issues. TESOL Quarterly, 14(2), 175–187. .
Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority children. In California State Department of Education (Eds.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3–48). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Centre.
De Angelis, G. (2005). The acquisition of languages beyond the L2: psycholinguistic perspectives. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 37(2–3), 397–409.
De Angelis, G. (2007). Third or additional language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
De Angelis, G., & Selinker, L. (2001). Interlanguage transfer and competing linguistic systems in the multilingual mind. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition (pp. 42–58). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Dentler, S. (2000). Deutsch und Englisch- das gibt immer Krieg! In S. Dentler, B. Hufeisen, & B. Lindemann (Eds.), Tertiär-und Drittssprachen. Projekte und empirische Untersuchungen (pp. 77–97). Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
Dewaele, J. M. (1998). Lexical inventions: French interlanguage as L2 versus L3. Applied Linguistics, 19(4), 471–490. .
Dewaele, J. M. (2001). Activation or inhibition? The interaction of L1, L2, and L3 on the language mode continuum. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 69–89). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Falk, Y., & Bardel, C. (2010). The study of the role of the background languages in third language acquisition. The state of the art. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 48(2–3), 185–219. .
Falk, Y., & Bardel, C. (2011) Object pronouns in German L3 syntax: Evidence for the L2 status factor. Second Language Research, 27(1), 59–82. .
Fathman, A., & Lococo, V. (1989). Word order contrasts and production in three target languages. In J. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Transfer in language production (pp. 125–150). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Foote, R. (2009) Transfer in L3 acquisition: The role of typology. In Y. I. Leung (Ed.), Third language acquisition and universal grammar (pp. 48–80). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Groseva, M. (1998). Dient das L2-System als ein Fremdsprachenlernmodell? In Lindemann & B. Hufeisen (Eds.), Tertiärsprachen: Theorien, Modelle, Methoden (pp. 21–30). Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
Grosjean, F. (1989). Neurolinguits, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. Brain and Language, 36(1), 3–15.
Grosjean, F. (1992). Another view of bilingualism. In R. Harris (Ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals (pp. 515–529). Amsterdam: North Holland.
Grosjean, F. (2001). The bilingual’s language mode. In J. Nicol (Ed.), One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing. Oxford: Blackwell.
Haider, H. (1993). Deutsche Syntax. Tübingen: Narr.
Hall, C., Newbrand, D., Ecke, P., Sperr, U., Marchand, V., & Hayes, L. (2009). Learners’ implicit assumptions about syntactic frames in new L3 words: The role of cognates, typological proximity and L2 status. Language Learning, 59, 153–203.
Hammarberg, B. (2001). Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 production and acquisition. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition (pp. 21–41). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hammarberg, B. (2009) Processes in third language acquisition. Edinburgh: EUP.
Hammarberg, B., & Hammarberg, B. (1993). Articulatory re-setting in the acquisition of new languages. In E. Strangert, M. Heldner, & P. Czigler (Eds.), Studies presented to Claes-Christian Elert on the occasion of his seventieth birthday. Phonum, 2, 61–67. University of Umeå.
Herdina, P., & Jessner, U. (2002). A dynamic model of multilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hetch, K., & Green, P. (1993). Muttersprachliche Interferenz beim Erwerb der Zielsprache Englisch in Schülerproduktionen aus Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien, Schweden, und Ungarn. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen, 22, 35–56.
Ijaz, I. (1986). Linguistic and cognitive determinants of lexical acquisition in a second language. Language Learning, 36(4), 401–451. .
Jaensch, C. (2009). L3 enhanced feature sensitivity as a result of higher proficiency in the L2. In Y. Leung (Ed.), Third language acquisition and universal grammar (pp. 115–143). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Jaensch, C. (2011). L3 acquisition of German adjectival inflection: A generative account. Second Language Research, 27(1), 83–105. .
Jarvis, S., & Pavlenko, A. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. New York, NY: Routledge.
Katona, L., & Dörnyei, Z. (1993). The C-Test: A teacher friendly way to test language proficiency. Forum, 31, 34–35.
Klein, E. (1986). Second versus third language acquisition: Is there a difference?Language Learning, 45(3), 419–465. .
Lasagabaster, D. (2001). Bilingualism, immersion programmes and language learning in the Basque Country. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 22(5), 401–425. .
Leonini, (2003). V2 in adult 2 German: Analysing the interlanguage grammars. In M. van Koppen, J. Sio, & M. de Vos (Eds.), Proceedings of ConSole XI. Leiden: SOLE Publications.
Leung, Y. I. (2003). Failed features versus full transfer full access in the acquisition of a third language: Evidence from tense and agreement. In J. Liceras (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (pp. 199–207). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings.
Leung, Y. I. (2005). K2 vs. L3 initial state: A comparative study on the acquisition of French DPs by Vietnamese monolinguals and Cantonese-English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 8, 39–61. .
Leung, Y. I. (2007). Third language acquisition: Why it is interesting to generative linguists. Second Language Research, 23(1), 95–114. .
Lindqvist, C. (2009). The use of the L1 and the L2 in French L3. Examining cross-linguistic lexemes in multilingual learners’ oral production. International Journal of Multilingualism, 6(3), 281–297. .
Lindqvist, C. (2010). Inter- and intralingual lexical influences in advanced learners’ French L3 oral production. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 48(2–3), 131–157. .
Mägiste, E. (1986). Selected issues in second and third language learning. In J. Vaid (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives (pp. 97–122). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Möhle, D. (1989). Multilingual interaction in foreign language production. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Interlingual processes (pp. 179–194). Tübingen: Gunter Narr.
Montrul, S., Dias, R., & Santos, H. (2011). Clitics and object expression in the L3 acquisition of Brazilian Portuguese. Structural similarity matters for transfer. Second Language Acquisition, 27(1), 21–58. .
Müller-Lancé, J. (2003). A strategy model of multilingual learning. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The multilingual lexicon (pp. 117–132). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Muñoz, C. (2006). Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge: CUP.
Odlin, T., & Jarvis, S. (2000). Cognate vocabulary, language proficiency and syntactic transfer. Paper presented at AAAL, Vancouver, BC.
Odlin, T., & Jarvis, S. (2004) Same source, different outcomes: A study of Swedish influence on the acquisition of English in Finland. International Journal of Multilingualism, 1(2), 123–140. .
Polinsky, M., & Kluender, R. (2007). Linguistic typology and theory construction: Common challenges ahead. Linguistic Typology, 11(1), 273–283. .
Rast, R. (2010). The use of prior linguistic knowledge in the early stages of L3 acquisition. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 48(23), 159–183. .
Ringbom, H. (1982). The influence of other languages on the vocabulary of foreign language learners. In G. Nickels & D. Nehls (Eds.), Error analysis, contrastive analysis, and second language learning (pp. 85–96). Heidelberg: IRAL.
Ringbom, H. (1987). The role of the first language in foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Ringbom, H. (2001). Lexical transfer in L3 production. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition (pp. 58–69). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Ringbom, H. (2007) Cross-linguistic similarity in foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Robertson, D., & Sorace, A. (1999). Losing the V2 complaint. In E. Klein, & G. Martohardjono (Eds.), The developmental of second language grammars (Language Acquisition and Language Disorders 18) (pp. 317–359). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rothman, J. (2010). On the typological economy of syntactic transfer: Word order and relative clause high/low attachment preference in L3 Brazilian Portuguese. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 48(2–3), 245–273. .
Rothman, J. (2011). L3 syntactic transfer selectivity and typological determinacy: The typological primacy model. Second Language Research, 27(1), 107–127.
Rothman, J., & Cabrelli Amaro, J. (2010). What variables condition syntactic transfer? A look at the L3 initial state. Second Language Research, 26(2), 189–218. .
Rounds, P., & Kanagy, R. (1998). Acquiring linguistic cues to identify Agent: Evidence from children learning Japanese as a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20(4), 500–542. .
Sánchez, L. (2009). Selected effects of L2-L3 proficiency thresholds and asymmetric input on multiple language acquisition. Paper presented at the EuroSLA Conference, Cork, Ireland.
Sánchez, L. (2011a). Crosslinguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: English after German in Spanish Catalan Learners in an Instructed Setting. Unpublished PhD, University of Barcelona.
Sánchez, L. (2011b). Against ‘canonical word order’: Evidence of basic word order transfer at the Initial State. Newcastle Working Papers in Linguistics, 17, 220–236.
Sánchez, L. (2012). ‘Luisa and Pedrito’s dog will the breakfast eat’: Interlanguage transfer and the role of the second language factor. In G. De Angelis & J. M. Dewaele (Eds.), New trends in crosslinguistic influence and multilingualism research (pp. 86–104). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Sánchez, L. (2014a). An inquiry into the role of L3 proficiency on crosslinguistic influence in third language acquisition. Odisea. Revista de Estdios Ingleses, 15, 169–188.
Sánchez, L. (2014b). The roles of instruction and age in the development of written competence in L4 English. Evidence from a Spanish/ German CLIL context. In A. Otwinowska-Kasztelanic & G. De Angelis (Eds.), Language learning and teaching in multilingual contexts (pp. 125–141). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Sánchez, L. (2015a). Can a background language alter the path of acquisition of verb placement in a multilingual context? Evidence from a longitudinal study. In G. De Angelis, U. Jessner, & M. Krésic (Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence and crosslinguistic interaction in language learning (pp. 71–94). London: Bloomsbury.
Sánchez, L. (2015b). Activation and blending in third language acquisition. Evidence of crosslinguistic influence from the L2 in a longitudinal study on L3 English. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(2), 252–269. .
Sánchez, L. (2015c). The acquisition of written competence in learners of L3 English in a Spanish/ German content and language integrated learning context. In D. Marsh, M. Luisa Pérez, & Juan Ráez (Eds.), Spanish CLIL in action: Voices from the classroom (pp. 64–81). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.
Sánchez, L. (2016). Transfer in English as an L3. Empirical evidence from school-age learners in Catalonia. In C. Bardel, C. Falk, & C. Lindqvist (Eds.), Tredjespråkinlärning. (pp. 185–206). Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Sánchez, L., & Jarvis, S. (2008). The use of picture stories in the investigation of crosslinguistic influence. TESOL Quarterly, 42(2), 329–333. .
Sánchez, L., & Bardel, C. (2016). Cognitive factors, linguistic perceptions and transfer in third language learning. Revue Française de Linguistique Appliqué, 2, 123–138.
Schönpflug, U. (2000). Word-fragment completion in the second (German) and third (English) language. A contribution to the organisation of the trilingual speaker’s lexicon. In J. Cenoz, & U. Jessner (Eds.), The acquisition of a third language (pp. 121–142). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Schwarz, B., & Eubank, L., (1996). Introduction: What is the L2 initial State?Second Language Research, 12, 1–5.
Sikogukira, M. (1993). Influence of languages other than the L1 on a foreign language: A case of transfer from L2 to L3. Edinburgh Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, 4, 110–132.
Singleton, D. (1987). Mother and other tongue influence on learner French: A case study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9(3), 327–346. .
Singleton, D. (1999). Exploring the second language mental lexicon. Cambridge: CUP.
Sorace, A. (2000). Syntactic optionality in non-native grammars. Second Language Research, 16(2), 93–102. .
Stratilaki, S. (2006). Representations of plurilingual competence and language use in dynamic trilingual education. Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 11(1). <[URL]>
Swain, M., Lapkin, S., Rowen, N., & Hart, D. (1990). The role of the mother tongue literacy in third language learning. Language Culture and Curriculum, 3(1), 65–81. .
Taylor, B. (1975). The use of overgeneralization and transfer learning strategies by elementary and intermediate students of ESL. Language Learning, 25, 73–107.
Thomas, J. (1988). The role played by metalinguistic awareness in second and third language learning. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 9(3), 235–246. .
Todeva, E., & Cenoz J. (2009). Multilingualism: Emic and etic perspectives. In E. Todeva & J. Cenoz (Eds.), The multiple realities of multilingualism (pp. 1–32). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Vogel, T. (1992). Englisch und Deutsch gibt es immer Krieg. Sprachverarbeitungsprozesse beim Erwerb des Deutschen als Drittsprache. Zielsprache Deutsch, 23, 95–99.
Wagner, D., Spratt, J., & Ezzaki, A. (1989). Does learning to read in a second language always put the child at a disadvantage? Some counterevidence from Morocco. Applied Psycholinguistics, 10(1), 31–48. .
Williams, S., & Hammarberg, B. (1998). Language switches in L3 production: Implications for a polyglot speaking model. Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 259–333. .
Wode, H. (1977). Four early stages in the development of L1 negation. Journal of Child Language, 4, 87–102.
Cited by (7)
Cited by seven other publications
Foryś-Nogala, Małgorzata, Olga Broniś, Marcin Opacki & Agnieszka Otwinowska
2023. Cross-linguistic influences, language proficiency and metalinguistic knowledge in L3 Italian subject placement. International Journal of Multilingualism 20:2 ► pp. 308 ff.
Jamali, Maryam, Ali Akbar Jabbari & Mohammad Hasan Razmi
2023. Acquisition of attributive adjectives and noun adjuncts by L3 learners of French and German: further evidence for the typological primacy model (TPM). International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 61:3 ► pp. 851 ff.
Kong, Stano
2023. The acquisition of L3 French present simple and present progressive by adult L1 Chinese speakers of L2 English. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 61:2 ► pp. 655 ff.
Puig-Mayenco, Eloi, Jorge González Alonso & Jason Rothman
2020. A systematic review of transfer studies in third language acquisition. Second Language Research 36:1 ► pp. 31 ff.
Hopp, Holger
2019. Cross-linguistic influence in the child third language acquisition of grammar: Sentence comprehension and production among Turkish-German and German learners of English. International Journal of Bilingualism 23:2 ► pp. 567 ff.
Rothman, Jason, Jorge González Alonso & Eloi Puig-Mayenco
2019. Third Language Acquisition and Linguistic Transfer,
Hopp, Holger, Teresa Kieseier, Markus Vogelbacher & Dieter Thoma
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 25 august 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.