Chapter 1.Introduction: Why study semantic plurality and pluralities of
entities?
1
1.1What is a plurality of entities?
5
1.1.1
Plurality compared with aggregate and set
5
1.1.2Do collective nouns denote pluralities? The concept of internal
plurality
7
1.1.3Do plural NPs denote pluralities? The singularist approach
9
1.1.4List of linguistic means available to denote pluralities of
entities
10
1.2Advantages of a semantic /plurality/ feature over the /number/
feature
11
1.3Why take collective nouns as a starting point?
13
1.3.1Collective nouns as the problematic backbone of references to
pluralities
13
1.3.2A long tradition of deceptively simple descriptions in grammars and
dictionaries
15
1.3.3A number of unsolved issues in recent studies
18
1.3.4Leading questions for this volume
20
1.4A preliminary list of pre-requisites for collective nouns
21
1.4.1A relation between units and a collective whole
21
1.4.2A plurality resulting from a grouping operation
22
1.4.3A specific type of part/whole relation
23
1.4.3.1Unprototypical meronymy
23
1.4.3.2Collective wholes distinguished from particulate masses
23
1.4.3.3Meronymy distinguished from taxonomy, despite the shared notion
of members
24
1.4.4A /plurality/ feature at lexical level – from whole sense to facet
of
25
1.5Outline of the book
26
Chapter 2.Hybrid agreement: Motivations, nature and constraints
27
2.1The boundary issue: Hybrid agreement as a defining feature of collective
nouns?
28
2.2The nature of hybrid agreement as an argument against the status of
defining feature
30
2.2.1Description of hybrid agreement with animate count collective
nouns
30
2.2.2The argument of hybrid agreement in gender systems
33
2.2.3Hybrid agreement as a superimposed effect of the universal Animacy
Hierarchy
33
2.2.4Consequence: The singular as the default agreement pattern
34
2.3Construal with hybrid agreement: Motivation and factors of
opacification
35
2.3.1Fundamental motivation: A double layer of conceptualisation
35
2.3.2Opacification factor 1: The status of default number of the
singular
37
2.3.3Opacification factor 2: Differences in the behaviour of individual
nouns
38
2.3.4Opacification factor 3: cross-regional differences
42
2.3.4.1American English vs. British English
42
2.3.4.2Other varieties of English
47
2.3.5Opacification factor 4: Genre and stylistic variation
48
2.3.6Opacification factor 5: Assessing the hypothesis of a diachronic
evolution towards more singular
49
2.4Conclusion on hybrid agreement in relation to the definition of
collective nouns
51
Chapter 3.Establishing the boundaries of collective nouns for count nouns
53
3.1Further construal characteristics of collective nouns that license hybrid
agreement
54
3.1.1Cohesion of the units
55
3.1.2A bounded plurality
55
3.1.3Non additivity considered further: Extreme heterogeneity in the
degrees of permeability
57
3.1.4Collective nouns, senses and facets: Hybrid agreement does not
guarantee a collective noun
61
3.1.4.1Distinction between lexicon-based and discourse-based collective
reference
62
3.1.4.2Exclusions from the class of collective nouns
64
3.1.4.3Summary: types of collectiveness and consequences for hybrid
agreement
67
3.1.5
Units of the same type not found to be a prerequisite
68
3.2Boundaries of the class of count collective nouns for humans
69
3.2.1Exclusion of enemy
69
3.2.2Exclusion of the taxon/exemplar relation: the case of race
70
3.2.3Inclusion of underdetermined nouns (e.g. group)
72
3.2.4A list of human count collective nouns
73
3.2.4.1Data collection procedure
73
3.2.4.2A list of count collective nouns for humans
73
3.3Boundaries of the class of count collective nouns for animals
75
3.3.1From flocks and herds to auroras of polar bears: Are all these
collective?
76
3.3.1.1Preliminary overview of count nouns used to denote pluralities of
animals
76
3.3.1.2Only a minority of these nouns are actually collective
77
3.3.2Exclusion of the taxon/exemplar relation: The case of
breed and species
80
3.3.2.1Literal uses for animals
80
3.3.2.2Metaphorical extensions: Comparison with kind
and generation
81
3.3.3Inclusion of count uses of fauna
83
3.3.4A list of count collective nouns for animals
83
3.4Count collective nouns that denote pluralities of inanimates
84
3.4.1Inclusions and exclusions: A closer look at potential problem
cases
84
3.4.1.1Books and other written documents (e.g. anthology)
85
3.4.1.2Nouns that denote networks
87
3.4.1.3Durations (e.g. week)
87
3.4.1.4
Alphabet
88
3.4.2A list of inanimate count collective nouns that may occur without an
of-complement
88
3.4.3A comparison between inanimate and animate count collective
nouns
89
3.5The boundaries of collective nouns among N1s in binominal NPs
90
3.5.1From pseudo-partitives to the organised plurality
construction
91
3.5.2Meaning relations when N1 is uncontroversially collective
94
3.5.3Extension 1: Collective nouns in metaphorical uses are still
collective
95
3.5.4Extension 2: Loss of collective status in rare cases of reanalysis of
the construction
97
3.5.5Application to N1s that are not of collective origin: Rejection of
collective status
98
3.6Conclusion
100
Chapter 4.A comparison between NPs headed by count collective nouns and NPs whose
/plurality/ feature is acquired in discourse
103
4.1NPs headed by a count noun in the plural
104
4.1.1The morphosyntactic plural: Discourse feature or component of lexical
matter?
104
4.1.2Construal of pluralities when the plural morpheme is -s: Distinction
between collective and cohesive
106
4.1.3Construal of pluralities with the zero plural morpheme: A form of
collectivisation?
108
4.1.3.1ø as a morpheme: (These) elephant, aspirin, (ten) crew and others
108
4.1.3.2The result of two different coercion processes: Rejection of the
notion of internal plural
112
4.1.3.3These pluralities are not collective – resulting labels
117
4.2Other ways of denoting pluralities of units through discourse-acquired
features
120
4.2.1Conjoined NPs
120
4.2.2Partly substantivised adjectives
123
4.2.2.1A four-stage gradient of nominalisation
124
4.2.2.2The result of pressure to categorise individuals
127
4.2.2.3What construal of the pluralities? A gradient from aggregates to
groupings
128
4.2.2.4Competing solutions for the same adjectives
128
4.2.3Quantifier + singular count noun
130
4.3Conclusion
131
Chapter 5.Non-count singular nouns with a /plurality/ feature
133
5.1A note on terminological choices
134
5.1.1
Non-count as a matter of variety of English
134
5.1.2
Non-count rather than mass
135
5.1.3Non-count nouns as carrying number: Lexical vs. morphosyntactic
number
137
5.2The terms of the debate: Construal differences between
furniture nouns and count collective nouns
140
5.2.1Introduction: Historical perspective
140
5.2.2Construal differences between furniture nouns and
other singular non-count nouns
142
5.2.3Construal differences between furniture nouns and
count collective nouns
143
5.2.4Construal differences between furniture nouns and
N-s
145
5.3
Furniture nouns as superordinate aggregate nouns:
Non-taxonomic hyperonyms of plural classes
147
5.3.1Superordinate aggregates
147
5.3.2Non-taxonomic hyperonyms
148
5.3.3The hyperonym of plural classes hypothesis
150
5.3.4A typology of nouns that denote aggregates of heterogeneous
entities
153
5.3.4.1Tentative list
153
5.3.4.2A note on number variation: reanalyses
154
5.4Extension to other non-count nouns that denote pluralities of
entities
154
5.4.1Other inanimates: Pluralities of homogeneous entities
155
5.4.2Animals
158
5.4.3Humans
160
5.4.3.1
Management and other departments?
160
5.4.3.2
Mankind, humankind and
humanity?
161
5.5Conclusion
164
Chapter 6.Lexical plurals that denote pluralities of entities
167
6.1Overview and typology of lexical plurals that denote pluralities of
entities
168
6.1.1
Crew, people and other originally count collective
nouns
169
6.1.2Morphologically-marked lexical plurals
169
6.1.2.1Nouns with a lexical plural marker -s
170
6.1.2.2Nouns with a Latin plural ending
170
6.1.2.3Remarkable lack of stability of the plural number
171
6.1.3
Cattle as an odd-one-out?
174
6.2These lexical plurals as aggregate nouns
174
6.2.1
Cattle: An aggregate noun resulting from coercion of
a singular aggregate noun
174
6.2.2Other nouns that denote entities of different kinds
176
6.2.2.1Hyperonyms of plural classes
176
6.2.2.2Lack of interest in the individual units: Aggregate nouns
177
6.3Lexical plurals vs. N-s or singular non-count nouns: Construal and
morphological attractors
179
6.3.1Preference for lexical plurals over N-s
179
6.3.2Preference for lexical plurals over non-count singular nouns
180
6.4Conclusion
183
Chapter 7.General conclusion
185
7.1The Scale of Unit Integration for pluralities of entities
186
7.2Challenges for further research
190
7.2.1The relation of morphosyntactic number to the lexical level
190
7.2.2Other types of pluralities
191