The South American nation of Suriname features a situation of multiple language contact in which speakers use various languages in changing constellations, and often simultaneously. Sarnami (Surinamese Hindustani) shows traces of koineization of various Indian languages, and the effects of multilingualism involving Sranan Tongo and Dutch, the two dominant languages of Suriname. Sarnami has undergone substantial contact-induced change in its lexicon and grammar, including the rise of SVO alongside the inherited SOV basic word order. We conclude that the ever growing influence of Sranan Tongo and Dutch may lead to more extensive restructuring with similar outcomes as “creolization”. Traditional labels are therefore not always adequate beyond the realm of the canonical creoles involving European lexifiers and (West) African substrate languages.
1997Languages in contact in Jharkhand: A case of language conflation, language change and language convergence. In Languages of Tribal and Indigenous Peoples of India: The Ethnic Space, A. Abbi (ed.), 131–148. Delhi: Motilal Benarsidass.
2012Language contact in language obsolescence. In Dynamics of Contact-induced Language Change, C. Chamoreau & I. Léglise (eds), 77–110. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Alleyne, M.C
1980Comparative Afro-American: An Historical-comparative Study of English-based Afro-American Dialects of the New World. Ann Arbor MI: Karoma.
1995Demographic Factors in the Formation of Sranan. In The Early Stages of Creolization [Creole Language Library 13], Jacques Arends (ed.), 233–285. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Auer, P
1998Dialect levelling and the standard varieties in Europe. Folia Linguistica 32(1–2): 1–9.
Auer, P
1999From codeswitching via language mixing to fused lects: Toward a dynamic typology of bilingual speech. International Journal of Bilingualism 3(4): 309–332.
Backus, A
2004Convergence as a mechanism of language change. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 7(2): 179–181.
Barz, R. & Siegel, J
(eds)1988Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
van den Bersselaar, D., Ketelaars, H. & Dalhuisen, L.G
1991De Komst van Contractarbeiders uit Azië : Hindoestanen en Javanen in Suriname. Leiden: Coördinaat Minderhedenstudies, RUL.
Bhatia, T.K
1982Trinidad Hindi: Three generations of a transplanted variety. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 11(2): 135–150.
Bickerton, D
2009Dynamics of a Creole System. Cambridge: CUP.
de Bies, R., Martin, W. & Smedts, W
2009Prisma Woordenboek Surinaams Nederlands. Houten: Prisma Woordenboeken en Taaluitgaven.
Blommaert, J
1992Codeswitching and the exclusivity of social identities: Some data from Campus Kiswahili. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 13(1–2): 57–70.
de Boer, W
1998Het overzeese Bhojpuri in Guyana, Trinidad en Suriname. In Grepen uit 125 Jaar Maatschappelijke Ontwikkeling van Hindostanen: Van Gya en Boodheea tot Lachmon en Djwalapersad, M.S. Hassankhan & S. Hira (eds), 190–201. Paramaribo: IMWO Nauyuga and Amrit.
Boretzky, N
1985Regelentlehnung und Substrateinfluss in Kreolsprachen. In Akten des 2. Essener Kolloquiums über ‘Kreolsprachen und Sprachkontakte’ [Bochum-Essener Beiträge Zur Sprachwandelforschung (BEBS): 2], N. Boretzky, W. Enninger & T. Stolz (eds), 9–39. Bochum: Brockmeyer.
Borowiak, T
2007Mixed conjunct verbs and other manifestations of Hindi Englishization. Investigationes Linguisticae 5: 1–13.
1990Structural influence of Arabic and Persian on the North-Western Indo-Aryan languages. Journal of the Atlantic Provinces Linguistic Association 14: 11–20.
Carlin, E.B
2006Feeling the need: The borrowing of Cariban functional categories into Mawayana (Arawak). In Grammars in Contact: A Cross-linguistic Perspective, [Explorations in Linguistic Typology], A.Y. Aikhenvald & R.M.W. Dixon (eds), Oxford: OUP.
Carlin, E.B. & Arends, J
(eds)2002Atlas of the Languages of Suriname [Caribbean Series]. Leiden: KITLV Press.
Charry, E., Koefoed, G. & Muysken, P
1983De Talen van Suriname: Achtergronden en Ontwikkelingen. Muiderberg: Coutinho.
van Coetsem, F
2000A General and Unified Theory of the Transmission Process in Language Contact. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter.
Damsteegt, T
1988Sarnami: A living language. In Language transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi, R.K. Barz & J. Siegel (eds), 95–119. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Damsteegt, T
1990Hindi and Sarnami as literary languages of the East Indian Surinamese. In Language versus Dialect, M. Offredi (ed.), 47–66. New Delhi: Manohar.
Damsteegt, T. & Narain, J
1987Ká Hál: Leerboek Sarnami (Surinaams Hindostaans). Den Haag: Nederlands Bibliotheek en Lektuur Centrum.
Deuchar, M., Muysken, P. & Wang, S-L
2007Structured variation in codeswitching: Towards an empirically based typology of bilingual speech patterns. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 10(3): 298–340.
Faraclas, N.G
1985River Pidgin (Creole) English: Tone, stress or pitch-accent language? In
Papers from the 15th African Linguistics Conference
, [Studies in African Linguistics 9], R. Galen Schuh (ed.), 111–113. Los Angeles CA: African Studies Center and Dept. of Linguistics, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA).
Gambhir, S.K
1981The East Indian Speech Community in Guyana?: A Sociolinguistic Study with Special Reference to Koine Formation. PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
Gobardhan-Rambocus, L. & Sarmo, J
1993Het Surinaams Javaans. In Immigratie en Ontwikkeling. Emancipatieproces van Contractanten, L. Gobardhan-Rambocus & M.S. Hassankhan (eds), 184–201. Paramaribo: Anton de Kom Universiteit.
Gómez-Rendón, J
2007Grammatical borrowing in Paraguayan Guarani. In Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-linguistic Perspective [Empirical Approaches to Language Typology 38], Y. Matras & J. Sakel (eds), 523–550.. Mouton de Gruyter.
Gómez-Rendón, J
2008Typological and Social Constraints on Language Contact: Amerindian Languages in Contact with Spanish. PhD dissertion, University of Amsterdam.
Good, J.C
2004Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language. Lingua 114: 575–619.
1972The analysis of linguistic borrowing. In The Ecology of Language. Essays by Einar Haugen, A.S. Dil (ed.), 79–109. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press.
Heine, B
1990Language policy in Africa. In Language Policy and Political Development,B. Weinstein (ed.), 167–184. Norwood NJ: Ablex.
2010Language contact and grammatical change. In The Handbook of Language Contact, R. Hickey (ed.), 529–572. Cambridge: CUP.
Heinold, S
2009Derivational morphology under the influence of language contact in French and German. Journal of Language Contact 2(2): 68–84.
Hira, S
1998125 jaar sociaal-economische ontwikkeling van de Hindostanen in Suriname. In Grepen uit 125 Jaar Maatschappelijke Ontwikkeling van Hindostanen: Van Gya en Boodheea tot Lachmon en Djwalapersad, M.S. Hassankhan & S. Hira (eds), 10–24. Paramaribo: IMWO Nauyuga and Amrit.
Hoff, B.J
1995Language, contact, war, and Amerindian historical tradition: The special case of the Island Carib. In Wolves from the Sea: Readings in the Archaeology and Anthropology of the Island Carib, N.L Whitehead (ed.), 37–60. Leiden: KITLV Press.
Horstmann, M
1969Sadani: Bhojpuri Dialect Spoken in Chotanagpur. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
van Hout, R. & Muysken, P
1994Modeling lexical borrowability. Language Variation and Change 6(1): 39–62.
Huttar, G.L
1983On the study of Creole lexicons. In Studies in Caribbean languages, L.D. Carrington (ed.), 82–89. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Society for Caribbean Linguistics.
1997Ndyuka-Trio Pidgin. In Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective [Creole Language Library 17], S. Grey Thomason (ed.), 99–124. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kachru, Y
2006Hindi [London Oriental and African Language Library 12]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kale, M
1998Fragments of Empire: Capital, Slavery, and Indian Indentured Labor Migration in the British Caribbean. Philadelphia PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Kerswill, P
2002Koineization and accommodation. In The Handbook of Language Variation and Change, J.K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, N. Schilling-Estes & P. Kerswill (eds), 669–702. Oxford: Blackwell.
Kishna, S
1979Lexikale Interferentie in het Sarnami: Een Sociolinguistische Benadering. MA thesis, University of Amsterdam.
Kishna, S
1981The recipient state construction in Sarnami. Perspectives on Functional Grammar, 135–156.
de Kleine, C.M
1999A Morphosyntactic Analysis of Surinamese Dutch as Spoken by the Creole Population of Paramaribo, Suriname. New York, NY: City University of New York.
de Klerk, C.J.M
1953De Immigratie der Hindostanen in Suriname. Amsterdam: Urbi et Orbi.
de Koning, A
1998Als jij Ram bent... : Veranderingen in het leven van Hindostaanse vrouwen in Paramaribo vanaf de jaren vijftig. In Grepen uit 125 Jaar Maatschappelijke Ontwikkeling van Hindostanen: Van Gya en Boodheea tot Lachmon en Djwalapersad, M.S. Hassankhan & S. Hira (eds), 159–189. Paramaribo: IMWO Nauyuga and Amrit.
1993The role of relexification and syntactic reanalysis in Haitian Creole: Methodological aspects of a research program. In Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties,S. Mufwene (ed.), 254–279. Athens GA: University of Georgia Press.
Lefebvre, C
1998Creole Genesis and the Acquisition of Grammar: The Case of Haitian Creole [Cambridge Studies in Linguistics 88]. Cambridge: CUP.
Marhé, R.M
1985Sarnami byakaran: Een Elementaire Grammatica van het Sarnami. Leidschendam: Stichting voor Surinamers.
Masica, C.P
1993The Indo-Aryan Languages [Cambridge Lamguage Surveya]. Cambridge: CUP.
Matras, Y. & Sakel, J
(eds)2007Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective [Empirical Approaches to Language Typology 38]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Matras, Y. & Shabibi, M
2007Grammatical borrowing in Khuzistani Arabic. In Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-linguistic Perspective [Empirical Approaches to Language Typology 38], Y. Matras & J. Sakel (eds), 137–149. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Mayer, M
1969Frog, Where Are You? New York NY: Dial Press.
McGregor, R.S
1995Outline of Hindi Grammar, 3rd edn. Oxford: OUP.
1990The rise and fall of Trinidad Bhojpuri. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 85: 21–30.
Müller, S
2002Complex Predicates?: Verbal Complexes, Resultative Constructions, and Particle Verbs in German. Stanford CA: CSLI.
Muysken, P
1981Halfway between Quechua and Spanish: The case for relexification. In Historicity and Variation in Creole Studies, A. Valdman & A. Highfield (eds), 52–78. Ann Arbor MI: Karoma.
Muysken, P
1997Media Lengua. In Contact Languages: A Wider Perspective [Creole Language Library 17], S. Grey Thomason (ed.), 365–426. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Muysken, P
2000Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Code-Mixing. Cambridge: CUP.
Myers-Scotton, C
1993Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence from Africa [Studies in Language Contact]. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Omondi, L.N. & Sure, E.K
1997The Kenyan language policy: A historical review and research agenda. In Proceedings of the LiCCA Workshop in Dar es Salaam, Vol. 2 [LiCCA Papers (LiCCAP)], B. Smieja (ed.), 97–118. Duisburg: Languages in Contact and Conflict in Africa (LiCCA), Gerhard Mercator University.
Le Page, R.B. & Tabouret-Keller, A
1985Acts of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge: CUP.
Plag, I
(ed.)2003Phonology and Morphology of Creole Languages [Linguistische Arbeiten 478]. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Poplack, S
2012What does the nonce borrowing hypothesis hypothesize?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 15(3): 644–648.
Poplack, S, Zentz, L. & Dion, N
2012Phrase-final prepositions in Quebec French: An empirical study of contact, code-switching and resistance to convergence. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 15(2): 203–225.
Postma, J
1990The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815. Cambridge: CUP.
Roberts, S.J
2005The Emergence of Hawai’i Creole English in the Early 20th Century: The Socialhistorical Context of Creole Genesis. PhD dissertation, University of Stanford.
Ross, M.D
1996Contact-induced change and the comparative method: Cases from Papua New Guinea. In The Comparative Method Reviewed: Regularity and Irregularity in Language Change, M. Durie & M. Ross (eds), 180–217. Oxford: OUP.
Rybka, K
2009Semantics of Topological Relators in Lokono and a Sketch of Their Morphosyntax. MA thesis, University of Amsterdam.
Sakel, J
2007Types of loan: Matter and pattern. In Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective [Empirical Approaches to Language Typology (EALT) 38], Y. Matras & J. Sakel (eds), 15–29. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Saksena, B
1971Evolution of Awadhi (a Branch of Hindi), 2nd edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Santokhi, E. & Nienhuis, L.J.A
2004Sarnami Woordenboek: Een Tweetalig Woordenboek van het Surinaams Hindostaans. Den Haag: Communicatiebureau Sampreshan.
Saunders, K
1984Indentured Labour in the British Empire, 1834–1920. London: Croom Helm.
Schuchardt, H.E.M
1914Die Sprache der Saramakkaneger in Surinam. Amsterdam: J. Müller.
1981Bhojpuri Grammar. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Siegel, J
1985Plantation Languages in Fiji. PhD dissertation, Australian National University.
Smith, N
1987The Genesis of the Creole Languages of Surinam. PhD dissertation, University of Amsterdam.
Smith, N
2002The history of the Surinamese creoles, II?: Origin and differentiation. In Atlas of the Languages of Suriname, E.B. Carlin & J. Arends (eds), 131–151. Leiden: KITLV Press.
Taylor, D.R. & Hoff, B.J
1980The linguistic repertory of the Island-Carib in the seventeenth century: The men’s language: A Carib Pidgin?International Journal of American Linguistics 46(4): 301–312.
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E. & van Wetering, W
1988The Great Father and the Danger: Rreligious Cults, Material Forces, and Collective Fantasies in the World of the Surinamese Maroons. Dordrecht: Foris.
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E., van Wetering, W. & van der Elst, D
2004In the Shadow of the Oracle: Religion as Politics in a Suriname Maroon Society. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Thomason, S.G. & Kaufman, T
1988Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkley CA: University of California Press.
Thomason, Sarah Grey
2001Language Contact: An Introduction. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Thurgood, G. & Li, F
2007From Malay to Sinitic: The restructuring of Tsat under intense language contact. In SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002, [Pacific Linguistics Series E, Vol. 4], R. Wayland, J. Hartmann & P. Sidwell (eds), 129–136. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Tiwari, U.N
1960The Origin and Development of Bhojpuri. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society.
Tjon Sie Fat, P.B
2002Kejia: A Chinese language in Suriname. In Atlas of the Languages of Suriname, E.B. Carlin & J. Arends (eds), 233–248. Leiden: KITLV Press.
Tjon Sie Fat, P.B
2009Chinese New Migrants in Suriname: The Inevitability of Ethnic Performing. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Veiga, M
1999Language Policy in Cape Verde: A Proposal for the Affirmation of Kriolu. Praia: Capeverdean Creole Inst. (CCI).
Verma, S
1966The Structure of the Magahi Verb. Delhi: Manohar.
Vruggink, H
1987Het Surinaams Javaans: Een introduktie. OSO 2: 35–48.
Winford, D
2003An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 19 march 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.