Table of contents
Acknowledgments
xiii
Key to glosses
xv
A note on the examples
xvii
Introduction
1
Opportunities provided by research into the Palenquero language
2
Lexicon
2
A grammar within a grammar
3
Acquisition of the creole as a second language
4
The present study
6
Chapter 1.The Palenquero language: History and scholarship
9
San Basilio de Palenque: Founding and linguistic history
9
Scholarship on the Palenquero language
15
Chapter 2.Palenque: Language revitalization and the evolving linguistic ecology
19
From scorn to admiration
19
Predictions of doom
21
Rising from the ashes
22
The emergence of metalinguistic awareness and Palenquero “language experts”
24
Back to the future: Archaic restoration and “neo-Palenquero” lexical items
25
Other challenges to research in Palenque
30
Classification of Lengua ri Palenge speakers
32
Chapter 3.A brief sketch of Palenquero grammar
35
Overview
35
Absence of grammatical gender
35
Nominal plural marking
36
Articles
37
Palenquero pronouns
38
Subject clitics
40
Palenquero complementizers
42
Pleonastic lo
47
Possession
50
Sentential negation
50
The Palenquero verbal system
51
The extension of -ba to non-verbal elements as a discourse marker
59
Lengua ri Palenge pronoun + -ndo as discourse marker
68
Pleonastic lo as discourse marker
71
Palenquero copular verbs
74
The extension of the Palenquero preposition andi
76
Chapter 4.Palenquero-Spanish mixing: Previous observations and new data
79
Previous observations
79
Apparent Palenquero-Spanish mixing: Field data
82
Possessive constructions
83
Plural marking
84
Definite articles
84
Negation
85
Preverbal object clitics
86
Insertion of conjugated verbs
88
Monotonic language switches
91
Are Palenquero-Spanish mixed utterances true code-switching?
94
Chapter 5.Palenqueros’ thoughts: Language identification tasks
95
Introduction
95
The first experiments: Language-identification
96
Method
96
Participants
97
Materials
97
Procedure
98
Results and discussion
98
Spanish-only stimuli
99
Palenquero-only stimuli
103
Reactions to stimuli nominally containing both Spanish and Palenquero elements
106
Overview
106
Conjugated verbs – first person plural in -mo
107
Conjugated verbs – first person singular
110
Other Spanish-like conjugated verbs
113
Preverbal object clitics
115
Preverbal negation with no
117
Feminine gender agreement
118
Palenqueros’ reactions to complete intrasentential language shifts
119
Language mixing judgments from a variationist perspective
123
A multivariate logistic regression analysis
123
Preliminary results
125
Discussion of results
127
Creating experimental stimuli with synthesized voices
129
Creating synthesized stimuli
130
Retesting language identification: An experiment with synthesized voices
131
Participants
131
Procedure and materials
131
Results and discussion
132
Chapter 6.Palenqueros talk back: Interactive tasks
135
Shortcomings of non-interactive language-identification tasks
135
Palenqueros and interactive tasks: Elicited repetition
136
Close-shadowing: A first approximation
136
Participants
137
Materials
137
Procedure
137
Results and discussion
138
Strategic omissions, pauses, and backtracking
139
Spontaneous intrasentential language shifts during shadowing
140
More interactive participation: Speeded acceptability judgment + repetition
145
Participants
146
Materials
146
Procedure
147
Results and discussion
147
Speeded acceptability task
147
Repetition task
148
Factors influencing identification of acceptable Lengua ri Palenge
149
Another variationist analysis
149
Factors influencing judgments of unacceptability (= mixing?)
153
Continuing the variationist analysis
153
A revised variationist model
154
Rapid translation: Another window into language identification
157
Method
157
Participants
157
Materials
157
Procedure
157
Initial results and discussion
160
All-Spanish and all-Palenquero stimuli
160
Putatively mixed Palenquero-Spanish stimuli
160
Preliminary observations: Cues to language status
164
Chapter 7.Palenquero-Spanish mixing and models of language switching
167
Palenquero and Spanish mixing
167
Why do (some) Palenqueros mix Spanish with Palenquero?
170
Why is Palenquero-Spanish mixing accepted as “authentic” lengua ri Palenge?
171
Chapter 8.Palenquero as a second language: Data and analyses
173
The language “teaching” environment in San Basilio de Palenque
173
More observations of young L2 speakers’ lengua ri Palenge
174
Data from interviews
174
Results from the translation experiment
175
Collection of written samples
175
Combinations of a and tan, including non-future uses
176
Examples from translation task
176
Examples of (a) tan from student writings
179
Referential null subjects
180
Examples from translation task
180
Examples in written assignments
183
Possessives
183
Examples of over-extended si and preposed possessives from translation task
184
Examples in written assignments
186
Use of the Palenquero plural marker ma as singular
187
Use of ma with singular reference in interviews
187
Use of ma with singular reference in picture-naming
188
Examples from translation task
190
Examples in written assignments
192
Spanish-like plural marking
193
Examples from translation task
193
Examples from written assignments
194
Definite articles
194
Examples from translation task
195
Examples from written assignments
195
Conjugated verbs
196
Examples of conjugated verbs from translation task
196
Examples of conjugated verbs from written assignments
197
Misuse and misidentification of Palenquero pronouns
198
Examples from interviews
198
Examples from translation task
199
Examples from written assignments
200
Feminine gender agreement
200
Preverbal negation
201
Examples from translation task
201
Examples from written assignments
202
L2 Palenquero speakers’ processing and production of phrase-final negation
203
Results: Translation of Spanish preverbal negator no to Palenquero
205
Another experimental examination of Palenquero negative placement
207
Participants
208
First experiment: Describing differences between pictures
208
Materials
209
Method
209
Results and discussion
209
Second experiment: Responding to questions about videos
209
Materials
209
Method
211
Results and discussion
211
Overall discussion of negation experiments
212
Insertion of key Palenquero lexical items
213
Examples from translation task
213
Examples from written assignments
214
Intertwined intrasentential code-mixing
216
A summary of variation: Principal components and discriminant analyses
218
Discussion: The future of lengua ri Palenge
223
The least proficient Palenquero speakers
226
Young heritage Palenquero speakers
226
Chapter 9.A window into Palenquero-Spanish bilingualism: Grammatical gender
229
Introduction
229
Gender agreement: At any cost?
229
The representation of grammatical gender
230
The possible cost of gender agreement
233
Automatization vs. no agreement
234
Experiment 1: Picture-describing
235
Method
236
Participants
236
Materials
237
Procedure
237
Results and discussion
237
Experiment 2: Speeded acceptability judgment + repetition
238
Results and discussion
239
Experiment 3: Number recall + repetition
241
Method
242
Participants
242
Materials
242
Procedure
242
Results and discussion
243
Experiment 4: Speeded translation
243
Results: Spanish gender agreement into Palenquero
243
Experiment 5: More memory-loaded repetition
247
Participants
247
Materials
247
Procedure
248
Results and discussion
248
Experiment 6: More close shadowing
249
Participants
249
Materials
249
Procedure
249
Results and discussion
250
General discussion
250
Chapter 10.Conclusions
253
Summarizing the results
253
Has Palenquero-Spanish mixing been present in San Basilio de Palenque from the outset?
253
Is Palenquero-Spanish mixing a sign of decreolization?
254
Is Palenquero-Spanish mixing code-switching?
256
Palenquero: (Still) an endangered language?
256
References
259
Appendix ASamples of L2 learners’ written lengua ri Palenge
279
Appendix BExamples of written Palenquero in the community
291
Appendix CPalenquero consultants
309
Index
315
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