Factors affecting voice onset time in English stops
English proficiency, gender, place of articulation, and vowel context
This study investigates the voice onset time (VOT) of L2 English stops produced by native speakers of Chinese at
different L2 proficiency levels. Four factors were examined: English proficiency, gender, place of articulation, and vowel
context. High and low achievers of English were recruited as the experimental groups and native speakers of English as the control
group. Each group consisted of 16 participants, 8 males and 8 females. Each participant took part in a read-aloud task, in which
the target words were presented in an embedded sentence.
The results showed that the effects of L2 proficiency were significant in that high achievers outperformed low
achievers who were affected by L1 negative transfer more seriously when producing native-like English stops. Additionally, when
producing English stops, velar stops had significantly greater VOT values than either bilabial or alveolar ones. However, no
significant gender differences were found. Male and female participants produced similar VOT values in English stops. Last, the
vowel context was also a significant factor. The VOT lengths differed according to the context of a following vowels. More
specifically, the VOT of a stop is significantly longer when followed by a tense vowel.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Research design
- 2.1Participants
- 2.2Materials and methods
- 2.3Procedures
- 3.Results and discussion
- 3.1General results
- 3.2Proficiency effect
- 3.3Gender effect
- 3.4Place of articulation effect
- 3.5Vowel context effect
- 4.Conclusion
- Notes
-
References
References (55)
References
Awoonor-Aziaku, Lena. 2021. Realisation of voice onset time (VOT) and its implication on voicing of English (RP) stops in Ghanaian English (GhE). Open Journal of Modern Linguistics 11.3:448–460. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Baker, Wendy, and Pavel Trofimovich. 2006. Perceptual paths to accurate production of L2 vowels: The role of individual differences. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 44.3:231–250. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brown, Cynthia. 2000. The interrelation between speech perception and phonological acquisition from infant to adult. Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory, ed. by John Archibald, 4–63. Oxford: Blackwell.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chao, Kuan-Yi, and Li-mei Chen. 2008. A cross-linguistic study of voice onset time in stop consonant productions. International Journal of Computational Linguistics & Chinese Language Processing 13.2:215–232.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chen, Li-mei, Kuan-Yi Chao, and Jui-Feng Peng. 2007. VOT productions of word-initial stops in Mandarin and English: A cross-language study. Paper presented at the 19th Conference on Computational Linguistics and Speech Processing, ROCLING 2007, Taipei, Taiwan.
Chen, Li-mei, Jui-Feng Peng, and Kuan-Yi Chao. 2009. The effect of lexical tones on voice onset time. Paper presented at 2009 11th IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia, San Diego, California, USA. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
Chin, Tsung. 2006. Sound Systems of Mandarin Chinese and English: A Comparison. Munich, Germany: Lincom Academic Publishers.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cho, Taehong, and Peter Ladefoged. 1999. Variation and universals in VOT: Evidence from 18 languages. Journal of Phonetics 27.2:207–229. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Docherty, Gerard J. 2011. The Timing of Voicing in British English Obstruents. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dong, Jingyu. 2014. Study on gender differences in language under the sociolinguistics. Canadian Social Science 10.3:92–96.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fant, Gunnar. 1973. Stops in CV-syllables. Speech Sounds and Features, ed. by Gunnar Fant, 110–139. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli. 1954. Acoustic analysis of stop consonants. Le Maître Phonétique 321:42–59.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Flege, James Emil. 1995. Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-Language Research 921:233–277.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Flege, James Emil, and Wieke Eefting. 1987. The production and perception of English stops by Spanish learners of English. Journal of Phonetics 151:67–83. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Flege, James Emil, Elaina M. Frieda, and Takeshi Nozawa. 1997. Amount of native-language (L1) use affects the pronunciation of an L2. Journal of Phonetics 251:169–186. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gósy, Mária. 2001. The VOT of the Hungarian voiceless plosives in words and in spontaneous speech. International Journal of Speech Technology 4.1:75–85. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Han, Feifei. 2013. Pronunciation problems of Chinese learners of English. ORTESOL Journal 301:26–30.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Han, Mieko S., and Raymond S. Weitzman. 1970. Acoustic features of Korean /P, T, K/, /p, t, k/ and /ph, th, kh/. Phonetica 22.2:112–128. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Huang, Tzu-Lai. 2001. Taiwanese and American English segmental phonemes: A contrastive study. Journal of Jin-Wen Institute of Technology 21:29–55.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kaur, Jasdeep. 2015. Factors influencing voice onset time (VOT): Voice recognition. International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) 3.10:174–179.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kim, Mi-Ryoung. 2011. The relationship between cross language phonetic influences and L2 proficiency in terms of VOT. Phonetics and Speech Sciences 3.3:3–10. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Klatt, Dennis H. 1975. Voice onset time, frication, and aspiration in word-initial consonant clusters. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 18.4:686–706. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Koenig, Laura L. 2000. Laryngeal factors in voiceless consonant production in men, women, and 5-year-olds. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 43.5:1211–1228. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ladefoged, Peter, and Keith Johnson. 2014. A Course in Phonetics (7th edition). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liang, Enli. 2014. Pronunciation of English consonants and vowels and diphthongs of Mandarin-Chinese speakers. Studies in Literature and Language 8.1:62–65.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liao, Shu-Jong. 2005. Interlanguage Production of English Stop Consonants: A VOT Analysis. MA thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung.
Lisker, Leigh, and Arthur S. Abramson. 1964. A cross-language study of voicing in initial stops: Acoustical measurements. Word 20.3:384–422. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liu, Zhao. 2016. Exploring Cross-Linguistic Influence: Perception and Production of L1, L2 and L3 Bilabial Stops by Mandarin Chinese Speakers. MA thesis, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, España.
Llama, Raquel, Walcir Cardoso, and Laura Collins. 2010. The influence of language distance and language status on the acquisition of L3 phonology. International Journal of Multilingualism 7.1:39–57. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lord, Gillian. 2008. Second language acquisition and first language phonological modification. Selected Proceedings of the 10th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium, ed. by Joyce Bruhn de Garavito and Elena Valenzuela, 184–193. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ma, Jun-Zhou, Xiao-xiang Chen, Ye-zhou Wu, and Lin-jie Zhang. 2018. Effects of age and sex on voice onset time: Evidence from Mandarin voiceless stops. Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology 43.2:56–62. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Morris, Richard J., Christopher R. McCrea, and Kaileen D. Herring. 2008. Voice onset time differences between adult males and females: Isolated syllables. Journal of Phonetics 36.2:308–317. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Oh, Eunjin. 2011. Effects of speaker gender on voice onset time in Korean stops. Journal of Phonetics 39.1:59–67. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Peng, Jui-Feng, Li-mei Chen, and Chia-Cheng Lee. 2014. Voice onset time of initial stops in Mandarin and Hakka: Effect of gender. Taiwan Journal of Linguistics 12.1:63–79.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Port, Robert F., and Rosemarie Rotunno. 1979. Relation between voice-onset time and vowel duration. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 66.3:654–662. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Prator, Clifford. 1967. Hierarchy of difficulty. Unpublished classroom lecture. Los Angeles, CA: University of California.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Robb, Michael, Harvey Gilbert, and Jay Lerman. 2005. Influence of gender and environmental setting on voice onset time. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica 57.3:125–133. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rochet, Bernard L., and Yanmei Fei. 1991. Effect of consonant and vowel context on Mandarin Chinese VOT: Production and perception. Canadian Acoustics 19.4:105–106.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ryalls, Jack, Annie Cliche, Julie Fortier-Blanc, Isabelle Coulombe, and Annie Prud’Hommeaux. 1997. Voice-onset time in younger and older French-speaking Canadians. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 11.3:205–212. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schertz, Jessamyn, Taehong Cho, Andrew Lotto, and Natasha Warner. 2015. Individual differences in phonetic cue use in production and perception of a non-native sound contrast. Journal of Phonetics 521:183–204. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Smith, Bruce L. 1978. Effects of place of articulation and vowel environment on voiced stop consonant production. Glossa 12.2:163–175.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Swartz, Bradford L. 1992. Gender difference in voice onset time. Perceptual and Motor Skills 75.3:983–992. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sweeting, Patricia M., and Ronald J. Baken. 1982. Voice onset time in a normal-aged population. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 25.1:129–134. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wang, Chi-Lin. 1995. The Acquisition of English Word-Final Obstruents by Chinese Speakers. New York: State University of New York at Stony Brook.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1970. The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly 4.2:123–130. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Weismer, Gary. 1979. Sensitivity of voice-onset time (VOT) measures to certain segmental features in speech production. Journal of Phonetics 7.2:197–204. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Whiteside, Sandra P. 1996. Temporal-based acoustic-phonetic patterns in read speech: Some evidence for speaker sex differences. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 26.1:23–40. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Whiteside, Sandra P., Luisa Henry, and Rachel Dobbin. 2004. Sex differences in voice onset time: A developmental study of phonetic context effects in British English. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 116.2:1179–1183. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Whiteside, Sandra P., and Caroline J. Irving. 1997. Speakers’ sex differences in voice onset time: Some preliminary findings. Perceptual and Motor Skills 85.2:459–463. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Whiteside, Sandra P., and Caroline J. Irving. 1998. Speakers’ sex differences in voice onset time: A study of isolated word production. Perceptual and Motor Skills 86.2:651–654. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Whiteside, Sandra P., and Jeni Marshall. 2001. Developmental trends in voice onset time: Some evidence for sex differences. Phonetica 58.3:196–210. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yavaş, Mehmet, and Renée Wildermuth. 2006. The effects of place of articulation and vowel height in the acquisition of English aspirated stops by Spanish speakers. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 441:251–263. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yeh, Tzu-Fen. 2020. An OT analysis of Mandarin interference in the pronunciation of English obstruent-obstruent clusters. Taiwan Journal of Linguistics 18.2:1–38.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yu, Vickie Y., Luc F. De Nil, and Elizabeth W. Pang. 2015. Effects of age, sex, and syllable number on voice onset time: Evidence from children’s voiceless aspirated stops. Language and Speech 58.2:152–167. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zhang, Fa-Chun, and Peng-Peng Yin. 2009. A study of pronunciation problems of English learners in China. Asian Social Science 5.6:141–146. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)