Tone and vocabulary learning for classroom-based L2 Mandarin learners
Pedagogical implications from current tone word processing research
The primary function of Mandarin tone is to encode and differentiate otherwise similar-sounding words. In that
regard, proficient tone use is essential for both intelligible L2 pronunciation and successful vocabulary learning. Recent
research investigating L2 tone use in online Mandarin word recognition revealed persistent difficulties among proficient learners.
This paper reviews these findings in light of several tone teaching issues and challenges and proposes a few potential
improvements to the current tone word pedagogy. It is suggested that tone instruction can be more effective if it is form-focused,
systematically given in conjunction with vocabulary teaching, and backward-designed based on articulated tone word learning
objectives and matching assessments. While highlighting the potentials of computer-mediated tone instruction and self-directed
learning, the paper also identified a few directions for future research.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Research summary
- 2.1Processes and knowledge involved in tone word identification and production
- 2.2Key findings from the L2 tone word recognition research
- 3.Pedagogical implications
- 3.1L2 Tone word processing findings in light of current tone teaching practices
- 3.2Instructional considerations for more effective tone word learning
- 3.3Toward a more systematic tone pedagogy: Learning outcomes, assessments, and technology-enhanced self-directed learning
- 4.Conclusion and future research directions
-
References
References (99)
References
Brandl, K. (2008). Communicative language teaching in action. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bryfonski, L., & Ma, X. (2020). Effects of implicit versus explicit corrective feedback on mandarin tone acquisition in a SCMC learning environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
42
(1), 61–88. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chang, C. B. (2018). Perceptual attention as the locus of transfer to nonnative speech perception. Journal of Phonetics,
68
1, 85–102. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chang, C. B., & Bowles, A. R. (2015). Context effects on second-language learning of tonal contrasts. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
138
(6), 3703–3716. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chandrasekaran, B., Yi, H. G., Smayda, K. E., & Maddox, W. T. (2016). Effect of explicit dimensional instruction on speech category learning. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics,
78
(2), 566–582. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chao, Y. (1968). A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chinese Test International. (2021). Chinese Proficiency Test. [URL] (5 June, 2021).
Cook, S. V., Pandža, N. B., Lancaster, A. K., & Gor, K. (2016). Fuzzy nonnative phonolexical representations lead to fuzzy form-to-meaning mappings. Frontiers in Psychology,
7
1, 1345. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Curtain, H., & Dahlberg, C. (2010). Languages and children. Making the match. New languages for young learners, grades K-8. 4th Edi. New York, NY: Pearson.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cutler, A. (2012). Native listening: Language experience and the recognition of spoken words. Cambridge: MIT Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
DeKeyser, R. (2015). Skill-acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (2nd ed., pp. 94–122). New York: Routledge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2005). Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research-based approach
. TESOL Quarterly,
39
(3), 379–397. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dickerson, W. B. (2000, March). Covert rehearsal as a bridge to accurate fluency. In the Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Vancouver, BC.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Diependaele, K., Lemhöfer, K., & Brysbaert, M. (2013). The word frequency effect in first-and second-language word recognition: A lexical entrenchment account. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
66
(5), 843–863. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Duanmu, S. (2007). The phonology of standard Chinese (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dupoux, E., Sebastián-Gallés, N., Navarrete, E., & Peperkamp, S. (2008). Persistent stress ‘deafness’: The case of French learners of Spanish. Cognition,
106
(2), 682–706. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Elgort, I. (2011). Deliberate learning and vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Language learning,
61
(2), 367–413. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of instructed language learning. System,
33
(2), 209–224. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Francis, A. L., Ciocca, V., & Ng, B. K. C. (2003). On the (non) categorical perception of lexical tones. Perception & psychophysics,
65
(7), 1029–1044. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gass, S. (2003). Input and interaction. In: C. Doughty, & M. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 224–255). Oxford: Blackwell. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gass, S. M. (2013). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Routledge. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gregg, Kevin R. (2003). The state of emergentism in second language acquisition. Second Language Research 19(2). 95–128. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Griffiths, C. (2013). The strategy factor in successful language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
González-Fernández, B., & Schmitt, N. (2017). Vocabulary acquisition. The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition, 280–298. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hardison, D. M. (2004). Generalization of computer-assisted prosody training: Quantitative and qualitative findings. Language Learning & Technology,
8
(1), 34–52.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Han, J. I., & Tsukada, K. (2020). Lexical representation of Mandarin tones by non-tonal second-language learners. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
148
(1), EL46–EL50. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hao, Y. C. (2012). Second language acquisition of Mandarin Chinese tones by tonal and non-tonal language speakers. Journal of phonetics,
40
(2), 269–279. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hao, Y. C. (2018). Contextual effect in second language perception and production of Mandarin tones. Speech Communication,
97
1, 32–42. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hao, Y. C., & Liu, J. L. C. (2019). The effects of tone training on tone perception accuracy in Chinese language classrooms. Classroom Research on Chinese as a Second Language, 211. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Heift, T. (2004). Corrective feedback and learner uptake in CALL. ReCALL: The Journal of EUROCALL, 161, 416–431. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hallé, P. A., Chang, Y. C., & Best, C. T. (2004). Identification and discrimination of Mandarin Chinese tones by Mandarin Chinese vs. French listeners. Journal of phonetics,
32
(3), 395–421. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Howie, John. 1976. Acoustical studies of Mandarin vowels and tones. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Isaacs, T., & Harding, L. (2017). Pronunciation assessment. Language Teaching,
50
(3), 347–366. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Krashen, S. D. (1983). Natural approach (pp. 20–20). New York: Pergamon.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lappin-Fortin, K., & Rye, B. J. (2014). The use of pre-/posttest and self-assessment tools in a French pronunciation course. Foreign Language Annals,
47
(2), 300–320. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Language Testing International. (2021). How long does it take to become proficient? [URL] (2 February, 2021).
Lee, L. (2002). Enhancing learners ‘communication skills through synchronous electronic interaction and task-based instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 351, 16–24. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lee, L., & Nusbaum, H. C. (1993). Processing interactions between segmental and suprasegmental information in native speakers of English and Mandarin Chinese. Perception & Psychophysics,
53
(2), 157–165. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lenkaitis, C. A. (2020). Virtual exchanges for intercultural communication development: Using can-do statements for ICC self-assessment. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 1–17.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Li, M., & DeKeyser, R. (2017). Perception practice, production practice, and musical ability in L2 Mandarin tone-word learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
39
(4), 593. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liu, J., & Xiao, C. (2021). Tone Category Learning Should Serve Tone Word Learning: An Experiment of Integrating Pronunciation Teaching in the L2 Chinese Curriculum. The Acquisition of Chinese as a Second Language Pronunciation: Segments and Prosody, 1411. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Li, S., Ellis, R., & Shu, D. (2016). The differential effects of immediate and delayed feedback on learners of different proficiency levels. Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Research, 2861, 1–15.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lin, Mao-Ts’an. 1965. The pitch indicator and the pitch characteristics of tones in Standard Chinese. Acta Acoustica (2). 8–15.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ling, W., & Grüter, T. (2020). From sounds to words: The relation between phonological and lexical processing of tone in L2 Mandarin. Second Language Research, 0267658320941546. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ling, W., Schafer, A. J., and Grüter, T. (2016). Identification and discrimination of tone by L2 learners of Mandarin. Unpublished oral presentation at the Second Language Research Forum, New York, NY, USA.
Lively, S. E., Logan, J. S., & Pisoni, D. B. (1993). Training Japanese listeners to identify English/r/and/l/. II: The role of phonetic environment and talker variability in learning new perceptual categories. The Journal of the acoustical society of America,
94
(3), 1242–1255. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liu, S., & Samuel, A. G. (2007). The role of Mandarin lexical tones in lexical access under different contextual conditions. Language and Cognitive Processes,
22
(4), 566–594. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Loschky, L., & Bley-Vroman, R. (1990). Creating structure-based communication tasks for second language development. University of Hawai’i Working Papers in English as a Second Language
9
(1).![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lyster, R., Saito, K., & Sato, M. (2012). Oral corrective feedback in second language classrooms. Language Teaching,
46
1, 1–40. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Mixdorff, H., Külls, D., Hussein, H., Shu, G., Guoping, H., & Si, W. (2009). Towards a computer-aided pronunciation training system for German learners of Mandarin. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Speech and Language Technology in Education (SLaTE), Wroxall Abbey, Warwickshire, UK.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Moeller, A. K., & Yu, F. (2015). NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do statements: An effective tool for improving language learning within and outside the classroom.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Mora, J. C., & Levkina, M. (2017). Task-based pronunciation teaching and research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
39
(2), 381. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Morett, L. M., & Chang, L. Y. (2015). Emphasizing sound and meaning: Pitch gestures enhance Mandarin lexical tone acquisition. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience,
30
(3), 347–353. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Nassaji, H. (2016). Anniversary article interactional feedback in second language teaching and learning: A synthesis and analysis of current research. Language Teaching Research,
20
(4), 535–562. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Nation, I. S. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language Google eBook. Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Neal, R. (2020). Knocking tones off their perch: investigating the intelligibility of Anglophone beginner learners of Mandarin Chinese at two secondary schools in the North of England (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge).
Oxford, R. L. (2011). Teaching and researching language learning strategies. Harlow: Pearson Education.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self regulation in context. New York and London: Routledge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pawlak, M., & Szyszka, M. (2018). Researching pronunciation learning strategies: An overview and a critical look. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching,
8
(2), 293–323. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pelzl, E., Lau, E. F., Guo, T., & DeKeyser, R. (2019). Advance Second Language Learners’ Perception of Lexical Tone Contrasts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
41
(1), 59–86. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pelzl, E., Lau, E. F., Guo, T., & DeKeyser, R. (2020). Even in the best-case scenario L2 learners have persistent difficulty perceiving and utilizing tones in Mandarin: findings from behavioral and event-related potentials experiments. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1–29.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Peng, G., Zheng, H. Y., Gong, T., Yang, R. X., Kong, J. P., & Wang, W. S. Y. (2010). The influence of language experience on categorical perception of pitch contours. Journal of Phonetics,
38
(4), 616–624. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perrachione, T. K., Lee, J., Ha, L. Y., & Wong, P. C. (2011). Learning a novel phonological contrast depends on interactions between individual differences and training paradigm design. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
130
(1), 461–472. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Qin, Z., Tremblay, A., & Zhang, J. (2019). Influence of within-category tonal information in the recognition of Mandarin-Chinese words by native and non-native listeners: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Phonetics,
73
1, 144–157. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rifkin, B. (2005). A ceiling effect in traditional classroom foreign language instruction: Data from Russian. The Modern Language Journal,
89
(1), 3–18. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Saito, K., & Wu, X. (2014). Communicative focus on form and second language suprasegmental learning: Teaching Cantonese learners to perceive Mandarin tones. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
36
(4), 647–680. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sicola, L. (2008). “No, they won’t ‘just sound like each other’”: NNS-NNS negotiated interaction and attention to phonological form on targeted L2 pronunciation tasks (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Shen, G., & Froud, K. (2016). Categorical perception of lexical tones by English learners of Mandarin Chinese. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
140
(6), 4396–4403. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shen, G., & Froud, K. (2019). Electrophysiological correlates of categorical perception of lexical tones by English learners of Mandarin Chinese: an ERP study. Bilingualism,
22
(2), 253–265. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shi, H. (2018). A method of teaching English speaking learners to produce Mandarin-Chinese tones (Doctoral dissertation). [URL]. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
Solon, M., Long, A. Y., & Gurzynski-Weiss, L. (2017). Task complexity, language-related episodes, and production of L2 Spanish vowels. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
39
(2), 347. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Spada, N. (2011). Beyond form-focused instruction: Reflections on past, present and future research. Language Teaching,
44
(2), 225. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Strange, W., & Dittmann, S. (1984). Effects of discrimination training on the perception of/rl/by Japanese adults learning English. Perception & psychophysics,
36
(2), 131–145. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Suzuki, Y., Nakata, T., & Dekeyser, R. (2019). Optimizing second language practice in the classroom: Perspectives from cognitive psychology. The Modern Language Journal,
103
(3), 551–561. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In: H. G. Widdowson, G. Cook, & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of h. G. Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Terrell, T. D. (1982). The natural approach to language teaching: An update. The Modern Language Journal,
66
(2), 121–132. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Thomson, R. I. (2012). Improving L2 listeners’ perception of English vowels: A computer-mediated approach. Language Learning,
62
(4), 1231–1258. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tsukada, K., & Han, J. I. (2019). The perception of Mandarin lexical tones by native Korean speakers differing in their experience with Mandarin. Second Language Research,
35
(3), 305–318. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wang, Y., Sereno, J. A., Jongman, A., & Hirsch, J. (2003). fMRI evidence for cortical modification during learning of Mandarin lexical tone. Journal of cognitive neuroscience,
15
(7), 1019–1027. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Weber, A., & Cutler, A. (2004). Lexical competition in non-native spoken-word recognition. Journal of memory and language,
50
(1), 1–25. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Weber, A., & Scharenborg, O. (2012). Models of spoken-word recognition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science,
3
(3), 387–401.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wiener, S., Ito, K., & Speer, S. R. (2018). Early L2 spoken word recognition combines input-based and knowledge-based processing. Language and speech,
61
(4), 632–656. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wiggins, G. P., Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Ascd.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wong, P. C., & Perrachione, T. K. (2007). Learning pitch patterns in lexical identification by native English-speaking adults. Applied Psycholinguistics,
28
(4), 565. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wong, P., & Strange, W. (2017). Phonetic complexity affects children’s Mandarin tone production accuracy in disyllabic words: A perceptual study. PloS one,
12
(8), e0182337. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Xu, Y. (1999). Effects of tone and focus on the formation and alignment of f0 contours. Journal of phonetics,
27
(1), 55–105. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yang, J. (2015). Teacher and pupil beliefs about beginning to learn Chinese language in English secondary schools (Doctoral dissertation, University of Warwick).
Yang, B., & Yang, N. (2019). Development of disyllabic tones in different learning contexts. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching,
57
(2), 205–233. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yeung, H. H., Chen, K. H., & Werker, J. F. (2013). When does native language input affect phonetic perception? The precocious case of lexical tone. Journal of Memory and Language,
68
(2), 123–139. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yue, Y. (2017). Teaching Chinese in K–12 schools in the United States: What are the challenges?. Foreign Language Annals,
50
(3), 601–620. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zhang, X. (2018). Mandarin Chinese Tone Identification Training: Developing Materials for Second and Third Grade Classes in Mandarin Chinese Immersion Programs (Master Thesis). [URL]
Zou, T., Chen, Y., & Caspers, J. (2017). The developmental trajectories of attention distribution and segment-tone integration in Dutch learners of Mandarin tones. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
20
(5), 1017–1029. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)