Cover not available
Part of
Conspiracy Theory Discourses
Edited by Massimiliano Demata, Virginia Zorzi and Angela Zottola
[Discourse Approaches to Politics, Society and Culture 98] 2022
► pp. 443–464

Chapter 19
From strategic depiction of conspiracies to conspiracy theories

RT’s and Sputnik’s representations of coronavirus infodemic

ORCID logo | University of Tartu
ORCID logo | University of Tartu

Our study focuses on the coverage of coronavirus-related conspiracies/conspiracy theories published in spring 2020 (n = 146) in Anglophone media outlets RT and Sputnik that are financed by the Russian government. In our analysis we rely on a semiotic approach to strategic (conspiracy) narratives. Our study demonstrates a significant shift in the representation of conspiracies: instead of the depiction of malicious acts of secret grouping, RT and Sputnik narrate about alarming effects of conspiracy theories. Coronavirus-related conspiracy theories are represented as a means that the US is using in blame games against China and Russia, as well as a propaganda-tool for scaring the Western audience.

Keywords: strategic narratives, conspiracy theory, Model Reader, COVID-19 infodemic
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.The model of textual strategies of strategic (conspiracy) narratives
  • 3.Empirical material and analysis procedure
  • 4.Analysis of representations of conspiracies and conspiracy theories
    • 4.1Viral spread of 5G and anti-vaccination COVID-19 conspiracy theories
    • 4.2States/high officials accuse one another of a conspiracy concerning the coronavirus as a biological weapon
    • 4.3Corona infodemic and coronavirus anxiety are being used maliciously
    • 4.4False accusations of disseminating conspiracy theories as part of hostile information influence activities
  • 5.Discussion
  • Notes
  • References
  • Analysed materials
Published online: 1 December 2022
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/dapsac.98.19mad
References
Berzina, Ieva
2018 “The Narrative of ‘Information Warfare against Russia’ in Russian Academic Discourse.” Journal of Political Marketing 17 (2): 161–175. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Birchall, Clare
2006 Knowledge Goes Pop. Oxford and New York: Berg.Google Scholar
Burunov, Oleg
2020 Scientist Rejects Conspiracy Theories Claiming Coronavirus Engineered in Lab. Sputnik 16.02. [URL]
Eco, Umberto
2005 Lector in fabula. Tartu: Tartu University Press.Google Scholar
Flaherty, Emma, and Laura Roselle
2018 “Contentious Narratives and Europe. Conspiracy Theories and Strategic Narratives Surrounding RT’s Brexit News Coverage.” Journal of International Affairs 71: 53–60.Google Scholar
Geissler, Erhard, and Robert Hunt Sprinkle
2013 “Disinformation squared: was the HIV-from-Fort-Detrick myth a Stasi success.” Politics Life Sci 32 (2): 2–99. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Goshorn, Keith
2000 “Strategies of Deterrence and Frames Of Containment: On Critical Paranoia And Anti-Conspiracy Discourse.” Theory & Event 4 (3). Project MUSE ([URL])
Hutchings, Stephen, and Vera Tolz
2020 “The Challenge to Counter-Disinformation Analysts: A COVID-19 Case Study for Policy Makers and Journalists.” [URL]
Jantunen, Saara
2018 Infosõda. Tallinn: SA Kultuurileht.Google Scholar
Kalmar, Ivan
2018 ““The Battlefield Is in Brussels”: Islamophobia in the Visegrád Four in Its Global Context.” Patterns of Prejudice 52 (5): 406–419. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kragh, Martin, and Sebastian Åsberg
2017 “Russia’s strategy for influence through public diplomacy and active measures: the Swedish case.” Journal of Strategic Studies, 40 (6): 773–816. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kragh, Martin, Erik Andermo, and Liliia Makashova
2020 “Conspiracy Theories in Russian Security Thinking. Conspiracy Theories in Russian Security Thinking.” Journal of Strategic Studies 45 (3): 334–368. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Laclau, Ernesto
1993 “Discourse.” In A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, ed. by Robert E. Goodin, Philip Pettit, and Thomas Pogge, 431–437. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Lotman, Juri
1975 “Myth – Name – Culture.” Soviet Studies in Literature: A Journal of Translations 11 (2/3): 17–46. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lotman, Juri, and Boris Uspensky
1978 “On the Semiotic Mechanism of Culture.” New Literary History 9 (2): 211–232. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Madisson, Mari-Liis
2014 “The Semiotic Logic of Signification of Conspiracy Theories.” Semiotica 202: 273–300. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2016 “NWO Conspiracy Theory: A Key Frame in Online Communication of Estonian Extreme Right.” Lexia 23/24: 189–208.Google Scholar
Madisson, Mari-Liis, and Andreas Ventsel
2016 “Autocommunicative Meaning-making in Online Communication of Estonian Extreme Right.” Sign Systems Studies 44 (3): 326–354. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2018 “Groupuscular Identity creation in Online Communication of Estonian Extreme Right.” Semiotica: Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies 222: 25–46. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2020 Strategic Conspiracy Narrative: A Semiotic Approach. London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Majin, Graham
2019 “A Catastrophic Media Failure? Russiagate, Trump and the Illusion of Truth: The Dangers of Innuendo and Narrative Repetition.” Journalism 22 (10): 2548–2565. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Marmura, Stephen M. E.
2020 “Russiagate, WikiLeaks, and the Political Economy of Posttruth News.” International Journal of Communication 14: 5417–5435.Google Scholar
Miazhevich, Galina
2018 “Nation Branding in the Post-broadcast Era: The Case of RT.” European Journal of Cultural Studies 21(5): 575–593. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miskimmon, Alister, Ben O’Loughlin, and Laura Roselle
2017 “Introduction.” In Forging the World: Strategic Narratives and International Relations, ed. by Alister Miskimmon, Ben O’Loughlin, and Laura Roselle, 1–22. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
O’Halloran, Kay. L. and Sabine Tan
(2023 in press). “Discourse Analysis and Semiotics.” Bloomsbury Semiotics: A Major Reference Work in Four Volumes – Volume 4: Semiotic Movement, ed. by Jamin Pelkey and Paul Cobley. London: Bloomsbury. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pomerantsev, Peter
2016 “The Kremlin’s Information War.” In Authoritarianism Goes Global: The Challenge to Democracy, ed. by Larry Diamond, Mark F. Plattner, and Christopher Walker, 174–186. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
2019 This is Not Propaganda: Adventures in the War Against Reality. London: Faber & Faber.Google Scholar
Pomerantsev, Peter, and Micheal Weiss
2014 The Menace of Unreality: How the Kremlin Weaponizes Information, Culture and Money. New York: Institute of Modern Russia. [URL]
Ramsay, Gordon, and Sam Robertshaw
2019 Weaponising News: RT, Sputnik and Targeted disinformation. King’s College London Centre for the Study of Media, Communication & Power. [URL]
Seriot, Patrick
1999 Серио, Патрик. Как читают тексты во Франции [How to read texts in France]. In. Квадратура смысла. Французкая школа анализа дискурса [Quadrate of Thought. French School of Discourse Analysis]. (ed.) P. Seriot. Москва: Прогресс, 12–53.Google Scholar
Van Herpen, Marcel. H.
2015 Putin’s Propaganda Machine. Lanham: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Ventsel, Andreas
2011 “Hegemonic signification from Cultural Semiotics point of view.” Sign Systems Studies 39 (2/4): 58–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2016 “Political Potentiality of Conspiracy Theories.” Lexia (23/24): 217–234.Google Scholar
(2023 in press). “Semiotic approach of strategic narrative: The news discourse of Russia’s coronavirus aid to Italy”. Semiotica.Google Scholar
Ventsel, Andreas, Sten Hansson, Mari-Liis Madisson, and Vladimir Sazonov
2021 “Discourse of Fear in Strategic Narratives: The Case of Russia’s Zapad War Games.” Media, War & Conflict 14 (1): 21–39. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ventsel, Andreas; Mari-Liis Madisson, and Sten Hansson
2021 “Russia strategic blame narratives. Comparative analysis of domestic and international media coverage about 5G.” In The Russian Federation in the Global Information Warfare. Influence Operations in Europe and Its Neighbourhood, ed. by Holger Mölder, Vladimir Sazonov, Tanel Kerikmäe, and Archil Chochia, 267–294. Cham: Springer.Google Scholar
Wagnsson, Charlotte, and Costan Barzanje
2021 “A Framework for Analysing Antagonistic Narrative Strategies: A Russian Tale of Swedish Decline.” Media, War & Conflict 14 (2): 239–257. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Watanabe, Kohei
2018 “Conspiracist propaganda: How Russia promotes anti-establishment sentiment online?” ECPR General Conference 2018, Hamburg. Retrieved from [URL]
WHO
2020 “Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Promoting healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from misinformation and disinformation.” Retrieved from [URL]
Wodak, Ruth, and Michael Meyer
(eds.) 2001 Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Sage. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yablokov, Ilya
2015 “Conspiracy Theories as a Russian Public Diplomacy Tool: The Case of Russia Today (RT).” Politics 35 (3/4): 301–315. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhabotynska, Svitlana, and Valentina Velivchenko
2019 “New Media and Strategic Narratives: the Dutch Referendum on Ukraine – EU Association Agreement in Ukrainian and Russian Internet blogs.” European Security 28 (3): 360–381. DOI logoGoogle Scholar

Analysed materials

Birchall, Guy
2020a “ ‘Bill Gates is the most interesting man in the world’! He gives millions to MSM to laud his aims, while the NYT does it for FREE.” RT 27.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “From lions to lambs: Covid-19 reveals supposedly freedom-loving British to be anything but, as we happily clap away our liberty.” RT 27.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Blinova, Ekaterina
2020 “Ex-UN Expert: ‘Were China Held Liable for COVID-19, Would US Not Be Accountable for H1N1 Outbreak?’” Sputnik 23.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Cureton, Demond
2020a “Never Mind The B****cks: Google To Censor COVID-19 5G Conspiracies Amid String Of UK Mast Attacks.” Sputnik 08.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “Pompeo, Trump to Probe China for COVID-19 ‘Leak’ at Wuhan Lab Despite Scientists Debunking Theory.” Sputnik 16.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Dergacheva, Lilia
2020a “About 90 5G Conspiracy-Linked Attacks on Phone Masts Reported During UK Lockdown.” Sputnik 26.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “Chinese Ambassador Says Coronavirus Conspiracy ‘Was First Initiated in US’.” Sputnik 23.03. Retrieved from: [URL]
Dockery, Graham
2020 “Obama squares up against Trump’s ‘PROPAGANDA NETWORK’ – but who’s got the bigger guns?” RT 14.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Korso, Tim
2020a “Absolutely Unrelated: Scientists Bust Myths That 5G Equipment Helps to Spread Coronavirus.” Sputnik 05.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “’Vaccines With Microchips’: Russian Tennis Legend Marat Safin Spreads Coronavirus Conspiracy Theory.” Sputnik 15.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020c “5G Coronavirus Conspiracy Theories in UK Just Fake News, NHS Director Says.” Sputnik 20.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020d “Authorities Could Utilise Power of AI to Boost Physical Distancing, Patients Care, Tech Analyst Says.” Sputnik 29.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Luqman, Jacqueline, and Sean Blacmon
2020 “US Headed For Record Unemployment as Trump Continues China Blame Game.” Sputnik 11.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
MacDonald, Bryan
2020 “Moscow has secret Covid-19 CURE for chosen elite: Western media’s favorite Russian pundit voices new conspiracy theory.” RT 27.05. Retrieved from:. [URL]
Malic, Nebjosa
2020a “Weaponizing the coronavirus: Why US politicians & media suddenly care (hint: it’s about getting Trump).” RT 26.02. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “Russiagate all over again: Secret EU report blames Russia for coronavirus ‘confusion, panic and fear’.” RT 17.03. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020c “There he goes again: Russiagate godfather Obama promotes NYTimes’ latest conspiracy (this time it’s Putin + Covid-19!).” RT 15.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020d “Senator Burr enabled Russiagaters for years; now they’re accusing him of insider trading & coronavirus lies.” RT 20.03. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020e “Hello ‘Chinagate’: Why blaming Beijing is all the rage this US election cycle.” RT 17.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Ritter, Scott
2020 “As the Trump administration legitimizes Covid-19’s ‘China lab’ origins conspiracy theory, remember Iraqi ‘WMD’.” RT 17.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
RT
2020a “’They’re preparing people for microchip implants’: Tennis legend Marat Safin shares coronavirus conspiracy theory.” RT 14.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “Italian lawmaker demands Bill Gates be investigated for ‘crimes against humanity’… But WHY?” RT 18.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020c “’It’s man-made to test 5G’: Boxer Khan spreads coronavirus conspiracy claims, suggests pandemic could be ‘population control’ plot.” RT 04.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020d “Anti-5G fever spreads to the Netherlands as towers suffer ‘arson and sabotage’.” RT 11.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020e “Canadian Officials Concerned by Attacks on Cell Towers Amid 5G Conspiracy Theories.” RT 06.06. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020f “Huawei urges UK to stick with 5G collaboration as Chinese firm becomes target of Covid-19 conspiracies.” RT 13.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020g “UK ministers ‘no longer discounting’ theory that Covid-19 leaked from Wuhan lab – report.” RT 05.04. Retrieved from. [URL]
2020i “Hey MSM, you got coronavirus as another opportunity to roast Trump… but do the polls agree?” RT 27.03. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020j “ ‘This is NUTS!’ Russiagaters see red over Putin’s planeload of corona-aid for Trump, queue to look gift-horse in mouth.” RT 31.03. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020k “ ‘Questioning EU’s ability’: Eurocrat accuses Russian media of spreading Covid-19 ‘CONSPIRACIES,’ offers no examples.” RT 17.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020l “Washington fails to provide proof for alleged Moscow-backed Covid-19 disinformation campaign – Russian Foreign Ministry.” RT 09.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020m “Russia isn’t only behind election hacking! They’re also trying to smear US over coronavirus … according to State Department.” RT 22.02. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020n “ ‘We’ve seen no evidence’: Social media networks blow up US officials’ claim of ‘Russian coronavirus disinformation campaign’.” RT 29.02. Retrieved from: [URL]
Serebriakova, Aleksandra
2020 “Coronavirus Pandemic Reportedly Hardens Stance Towards Huawei Among UK Tories.” Sputnik 17.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Sputnik
2020a “5G Coronavirus Conspiracy Theories in UK Just Fake News, NHS Director Says.” Sputnik 04.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “UK Media Regulator Warns ITV Over Eamonn Holmes ‘Ill-Judged’ Comments About 5G Coronavirus Links.” Sputnik 20.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020c “UK Trade Group Reports Further Attacks on 5G Masts.” Sputnik 14.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020d “There is ‘an Element of Scaremongering’ Over Chinese Tech Firms in UK – Academic.” Sputnik 14.04. Retrieved from. [URL]
2020e “A Wuhan Lab is at the Centre of the Coronavirus Origin Conspiracy. Here is What is Known About It.” Sputnik 06.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020f “Grayzone Founder: Unpacking Lies That Aim to Deceive US Into War With China.” Sputnik 30.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020g “Missouri Case ‘Doesn’t Carry a Lot of Legal Weight’ – Academic.” Sputnik 22.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020h “How US Media Psychological Ops are Exploiting People’s Fears of COVID-19 Pandemic.” Sputnik 23.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020i “Failing to Curb Coronavirus? Ask EU How to Spin a Good Novichok-Style ‘Russia Threat’ Yarn.” Sputnik 18.03. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020j “Twitter, Facebook: There’s No Evidence Russian Fake Accounts Spread Coronavirus Conspiracy.” Sputnik 29.02. Retrieved from: [URL]
Tickle, Jonny
2020a “Western journalists & politicians MOCK Russian doctors driven to suicide by Covid-19 pressures.” RT 08.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “Lies, half-truths & propaganda: Even during Covid-19 crisis, Britain’s leading news source can’t resist Russia-bashing.” RT 29.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
Van de Beek, Eric
2020a “Coronacrisis: America First.” Sputnik 06.04. Retrieved from: [URL]
2020b “Abusing Corona to Blow up the EU.” Sputnik 18.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
Wilson, Damien
2020 “German establishment blames protests on mystery ‘far-right’ forces, when the real problem is a lame duck leader & lockdown fatigue.” RT 12.05. Retrieved from: [URL]
Cited by

Cited by 4 other publications

Deschrijver, Cedric
2024. Chapter 7. News media’s epistemological framings of the Covid-19 ‘lab leak’ hypothesis. In Manufacturing Dissent [Pragmatics & Beyond New Series, 339], ► pp. 215 ff. DOI logo
Musolff, Andreas
2023. Permacrisis, Conspiracy Stories and Metaphors. Półrocznik Językoznawczy Tertium 8:1 ► pp. 5 ff. DOI logo
Ventsel, Andreas, Sten Hansson, Merit Rickberg & Mari-Liis Madisson
2023. Building Resilience Against Hostile Information Influence Activities: How a New Media Literacy Learning Platform Was Developed for the Estonian Defense Forces. Armed Forces & Society ► pp. 0095327X2311632 ff. DOI logo
Ventsel, Andreas, Mari-Liis Madisson & Sten Hansson
2021. Russia’s Strategic Blame Narratives: Comparative Analysis of Domestic and International Media Coverage About 5G. In The Russian Federation in Global Knowledge Warfare [Contributions to International Relations, ], ► pp. 267 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 28 march 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.