Cover not available
Article published In:
Diachronica
Vol. 39:4 (2022) ► pp.449–489

Is Malayo-Polynesian a primary branch of Austronesian?

A view from morphosyntax

| Victoria University of Wellington
| National Taipei University of Technology
| Australian National University | University of the Philippines Diliman
| Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
An understudied morphosyntactic innovation, reanalysis of the Proto-Austronesian (PAn) stative intransitive prefix *ma- as a transitive affix, offers new insights into Austronesian higher-order subgrouping. Malayo-Polynesian is currently considered a primary branch of Austronesian, with no identifiably closer relationship with any linguistic subgroup in the homeland (Blust 1999, 2009/2013; Ross 2005). However, the fact that it displays the same innovative use of ma- with Amis, Siraya, Kavalan and Basay-Trobiawan and shares the merger of PAn *C/t with this group suggests that Malayo-Polynesian and East Formosan may share a common origin – the subgroup that comprises the four languages noted above. This observation points to a revised subgrouping more consistent with a socio-historical picture where the out-of-Taiwan population descended from a seafaring community expanding to the Batanes and Luzon after having developed a seafaring tradition. It also aligns with recent findings in archaeology and genetics that (i) eastern Taiwan is the most likely starting point of Austronesian dispersal (Hung 2005, 2008, 2019; Bellwood 2017; Bellwood & Dizon 2008; Carson & Hung 2018) and (ii) that the Amis bear a significantly closer relationship with Austronesian communities outside Taiwan (Capelli et al. 2001; Trejaut et al. 2005; McColl et al. 2018; Pugach et al. 2021; Tätte et al. 2021). Future investigation of additional shared innovations between Malayo-Polynesian and East Formosan could shed further light on their interrelationships.
Keywords: Austronesian higher-order subgrouping, Malayo-Polynesian, East Formosan, syntactic reanalysis, Austronesian diaspora, Out-of-Taiwan Hypothesis, triangulation
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.A note on Austronesian higher-order subgrouping
  • 3.Two functions of ma- in western Austronesian
    • 3.1 ma- as a stative intransitive prefix
    • 3.2 ma- as a Patient Voice-like affix used in transitives
  • 4.Proposal: ma tr - as a single, shared innovation of EF and MP
    • 4.1Against Scenario I (ma tr - as a PAn retention)
    • 4.2Against Scenarios III and IV (ma tr - as the outcome of drift)
    • 4.3Against Scenario V (ma tr - as a case of structural borrowing)
  • 5.East Formosan as the closest relative of Malayo-Polynesian
  • 6.Further evidence for EF-MP connection
    • 6.1Potential lexical innovations defining Proto-Coastal-Formosan
    • 6.2Support from sister fields
      • 6.2.1Genetics
      • 6.2.2Archaeology
  • 7.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Abbreviations
  • References
Published online: 16 May 2022
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.21019.che
References (137)
References
Adelaar, Alexander. 2011. Siraya: Retrieving the phonology, grammar, and lexicon of a dormant Formosan language. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Aldridge, Edith. 2016. Ergativity from subjunctive in Austronesian languages. Language and Linguistics 17(1). 27–62.Google Scholar
. To appear. Syntactic conditions on accusative to ergative alignment change in Austronesian languages. Journal of Historical Linguistics. DOI logo
Andersen, Henning. 1990. The structure of drift. In Henning Andersen & Konrad Koerner (eds.), Historical Linguistics 1987. Papers from the 8th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, 1–20. Amsterdam: Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baxter, Gareth, Richard Blythe, William Croft & Alan McKane. 2006. Utterance selection model of language change. Physical Review E 73(4). 46–118. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, Peter. 1984–1985. A hypothesis for Austronesian origins. Asian Perspectives 261. 107–117.Google Scholar
. 1988. Archaeological research in south-eastern Sabah. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Museum and State Archives.Google Scholar
. 1989. Archaeological investigations at Bukit Tengkorak and Segarong, southeastern Sabah. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 91. 122–162. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2005a. First farmers: The origins of agricultural societies. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
. 2005b. Coastal south China, Taiwan, and the prehistory of the Austronesians. In Chung-Yu Chen & Jian-Guo (eds.), The archaeology of south-east coastal islands of China conference, 1–22. Taipei: Executive Yuan, Council for Cultural Affairs.Google Scholar
. 2007. Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago, revised ed. Canberra: Australian National University e Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2017. First islanders: Prehistory and human migration in Island Southeast Asia. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, Peter & Eusebio Dizon. 2005. The Batanes archaeological project and the Out of Taiwan hypothesis for Austronesian dispersal. Journal of Austronesian Studies 11. 1–32.Google Scholar
. 2008. Austronesian cultural origins: Out of Taiwan, via the Batanes Islands, and onwards to Western Polynesia. In Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, Roger Blench, Malcolm D. Ross, Ilia Peiros & Marie Lin (eds.), Past human migrations in East Asia: Matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics, 23–39. UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bellwood, Peter, Geoffrey Chambers, Malcolm Ross & Hsiao-chun Hung. 2011. Are “cultures” inherited? Multidisciplinary perspectives on the origins and migrations of Austronesian-speaking peoples prior to 1000 bc . In B. Roberts & M. Vander Linden (eds.), Investigating archaeological cultures: Material culture, variability, and transmission, 321–354. New York: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, Peter & Eusebio Dizon. 2013. The Batanes Islands and the prehistory of Island Southeast Asia. In Peter Bellwood & Eusebio Dizon (eds.), 4000 years of migration and cultural exchange: The archaeology of the Batanes Islands, Northern Philippines (Terra Australis 40), 235–239. Canberra: Australian National University ePress. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Beratha, Ni Luh Sutjiati. 1992. Evolution of verbal morphology in Balinese. PhD dissertation, The Australian National University.
Blust, Robert. 1977. The Proto-Austronesian pronouns and Austronesian subgrouping: A preliminary report. Working Papers in Linguistics 9(2). 1–15. Honolulu: Department of Linguistics, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.Google Scholar
. 1983–1984. More on the position of the languages of eastern Indonesia. Oceanic Linguistics 22–231. 1–28.Google Scholar
. 1984–1985. The Austronesian homeland: A linguistic perspective. Asian Perspectives 261. 45–67.Google Scholar
. 1991. The Greater Central Philippines hypothesis. Oceanic Linguistics 301. 73–129. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 1993a. *S metathesis and the Formosan/Malayo-Polynesian language boundary. In Øyvind Dahl (ed.), Language – a doorway between human cultures: Tributes to Dr. Otto Chr. Dahl on his ninetieth birthday, 178–183. Oslo: Novus.Google Scholar
. 1993b. Central and Central Eastern Malayo-Polynesian. Oceanic Linguistics 321. 241–293. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 1999. Subgrouping, circularity, and extinction: Some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. In Elizabeth Zeitoun & Paul Jen-kuei Li (eds.), Selected Papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, 31–94. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
. 2001. Malayo-Polynesian: New stones in the wall. Oceanic Linguistics 401. 151–55. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2009/2013. The Austronesian languages. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.Google Scholar
. 2014. Some recent proposals concerning the classification of the Austronesian languages. Oceanic Linguistics 53(2). 300–391. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2017. The linguistic history of Austronesian-speaking communities in Island Southeast Asia. In Peter Bellwood, First islanders: Prehistory and human migration in island Southeast Asia, 190–197. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
. 2019. The Austronesian homeland and dispersal. Annual Review of Linguistics 51. 417–434. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2020. Response to comments on “The resurrection of Proto-Philippines”. Oceanic Linguistics 59 1. 450–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blust, Robert & Victoria Chen. 2017. The pitfalls of negative evidence: ‘Ergative Austronesian’, ‘Nuclear Austronesian’ and their progeny. Language and Linguistics 18(4). 577–621.Google Scholar
Blust, Robert & Stephen Trussel. 2020. Austronesian comparative dictionary. Online: [URL] Austronesian Comparative Dictionary.
Bril, Isabelle. 2017. Roots and stems in Amis and Nêlêmwa (Austronesian). In Eva van Lier (ed.), Studies in Language 41(2). 358–407. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Capelli, Cristian, James F. Wilson, Martin Richards, Michael P. Stumpf, Fiona Gratrix, Stephen Oppenheimer, Peter Underhill, Vincenzo L. Pascali, Tsang-Ming Ko & David B. Goldstein. 2001. A predominantly indigenous paternal heritage for the Austronesian-speaking peoples of insular Southeast Asia and Oceania. American Journal of Human Genetics 681. 432–43. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carson, Mike & Hsiao-chuen Hung. 2018. Learning from paleo-landscapes: Defining the land-use systems of the ancient Malayo-Polynesian homeland. Current Anthropology 59(6). 790–813. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cauquelin, Josiane. 2015. Nanwang Puyuma-English dictionary. Taipei: Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Chang, Anna. 2000. A reference grammar of Paiwan (in Chinese). Taipei: Yuanliu.Google Scholar
. 2006. A reference grammar of Paiwan. PhD dissertation, The Australian National University.
Chang, Yung-li & Chia-jung Pan. 2018. A sketch grammar of Tsou (in Chinese). New Taipei: Council of Indigenous Peoples.Google Scholar
Chen, Yaofeng, Shuzhuo Chen & Muzhu Xu. 2011. Homeland or transfer station? Genetic studies’ contribution to our understanding of Austronesian diaspora (in Chinese). Humanities and Social Sciences Newsletter Quarterly 12(3). 41–49.Google Scholar
Chen, Victoria. 2017. A re-examination of the Philippine-type voice system and its implications for Austronesian primary-level subgrouping. PhD dissertation, University of Hawai’i.
Chu, C. 1990. Investigation on the Neolithic sites in the estuary of Mawuku River, Taidong (in Chinese). Unpublished Masters thesis, National Taiwan University, Taipei.
Chung, Sandra. 2020. Chamorro grammar. California Digital Library University of California.Google Scholar
Croft, William. 2000. Explaining language change: An evolutionary approach. London: Longman.Google Scholar
. 2006. The relevance of an evolutionary model to historical linguistics. In O. Nedergaard Thomsen (ed.), Competing models of linguistic change: Evolution and beyond, 91–132. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Otto Christian. 1973. Proto-Austronesian. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, No. 15. London: Curzon Press.Google Scholar
De Busser, Rik. 2009. Towards a grammar of Takivatan Bunun: Selected topics. PhD dissertation, La Trobe University.
Donohue, Mark. 1999. A grammar of Tukang Besi. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dyen, Isidore. 1965. A lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics. Memoir of the International Journal of American Linguistics 191. Baltimore: The Waverly Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Bethwyn & Malcolm Ross. 2001. The history of Proto-Oceanic *ma-. Oceanic Linguistics 401. 269–290. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ferrell, Raleigh. 1969. Taiwan aboriginal groups: Problems in cultural and linguistic classification. Taipei: Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Gibson, Jeanne. 1980. Clause union in Chamorro and in Universal Grammar. PhD dissertation, University of California, San Diego, CA.
Gibson, Robert. 1993. Palauan causatives and passives: An incorporation analysis. PhD dissertation, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.
Gray, Russell, Alexei Drummond & Simon Greenhill. 2009. Language phylogenies reveal expansion pulses and pauses in Pacific settlement. Science 323(5913). 479–483. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Harvey, Mark. 1982. Subgroups in Austronesian. In Amran Halim, Lois Carrington & Stephen A. Wurm (eds.), Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics 21. 47–99. Canberra: The Australian National University.Google Scholar
Haugen, Einar. 1950. The analysis of linguistic borrowing. Language 261. 210–231. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Himmelmann, Nikolaus. 2004. On statives and potentives in Western Austronesian (mostly Tagalog). In Paul Law (ed.), Proceedings of AFLA 11. ZAS Papers in Linguistics 341. 103–19. Berlin: Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Typologie und Universalienforschung (ZAS). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2006. How to miss a paradigm or two: Multifunctional ma- in Tagalog. In Felix Ameka, Alan Dench & Nicholas Evans (eds.), Catching language: The standing challenge of grammar writing, 487–526. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Ho, Dah-an. 1998. Genetic relationships among the Formosan languages (in Chinese). Chinese Studies 16(2). 141–71.Google Scholar
Ho, Dah-an & Hsiu-fang Yang. 2000. Prologue: Austronesian and Formosan languages. In Lilian Huang (ed.), Formosan languages grammar series (in Chinese), 1–25. Taipei: Yuanliu.Google Scholar
Huang, Lilian. 2000. A reference grammar of Atayal (in Chinese). Taipei: Yuanliu.Google Scholar
Huang, Lilian & Hsin-sheng Wu. 2018. Atayal . A sketch grammar of Tsou (in Chinese). New Taipei: Council of Indigenous Peoples.Google Scholar
Huang, Shu-Ping & Li-May Sung. 2008. The undergoer focus ma- in Kavalan. Oceanic Linguistics 471. 159–84. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hung, Hsiao-chuen. 2005. Neolithic interaction between Taiwan and Northern Luzon: The pottery and jade evidence form the Cagayan Valley. Journal of Austronesian Studies 11. 109–34.Google Scholar
. 2008. Migration and cultural interaction in southern coastal China, Taiwan and the northern Philippines, 3000 bc to ad 100: The early history of the Austronesian-speaking populations. PhD dissertation, The Australian National University.
. 2019. Ancient interactions between eastern Taiwan and the Philippines: From the Palaeolithic Age to Iron Age. Field Archaeology of Taiwan 19(2). 87–116.Google Scholar
Hung, Hsiao-Chun, Yoshiyuki Iizuka, Peter Bellwood, Kim Dung Nguyen, Bérénice Bellina, Praon Silapanth, Eusebio Dizon, Rey Santiago, Ipoi Datan, & Jonathan H. Manton. 2007. Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(50). 19745–19750. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hung, Hsiao-chuen & Peter Bellwood. 2010. Movement of raw materials and manufactured goods across the South China Sea after 500 bce: From Taiwan to Thailand, and back. In Berenice Bellina, E. A. Bacus, T. O. Pryce & J. W. Christie (eds.), 50 years of archaeology in Southeast Asia: Essays in honour of Ian Glover, 235–245. Bangkok: River Books.Google Scholar
Hung, Hsiao-chuen & Yoshiyuki Iizuka. 2013. The Batanes Nephrite Artefacts. In Peter Bellwood & Eusebio Dizon (eds.), 4000 Years of Migration and Cultural Exchange: The Archaeology of the Batanes Islands, Northern Philippines, 149–168. ANU Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jauncey, Dorothy. 1997. A grammar of Tamambo, the language of western Malo, Vanuatu. PhD dissertation, The Australian National University.
Jespersen, Otto. 1922. Language, its nature, development, and origin. New York: H. Holt.Google Scholar
Kimoto, Yukinori. 2017. A grammar of Arta: A Philippine Negrito language. PhD dissertation, Kyoto University.
Kirch, Patrick. 2002. On the road of the winds: An archaeological history of the Pacific islands. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kroeger, Paul. 1991. Phrase structure and grammar relations in Tagalog. PhD dissertation, Stanford University.
Kulikov, Leonid. 2003. The labile syntactic type in a diachronic perspective: The case of Vedic. SKY Journal of Linguistics 161. 93–112.Google Scholar
Kuo, Su-chiu. 2019. New frontiers in the neolithic archaeology of Taiwan (5600–1800 BP). Singapore: Springer Singapore. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lavidas, Nikolaos. 2007. Transitivity alternations in diachrony: Changes in argument structure and voice morphology. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholar Publishing.Google Scholar
Li, Lilian Li-ying. 2018. A grammar of Isbukun Bunun. PhD dissertation, National Tsing Hua University.
Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2004. Origins of the East Formosans: Basay, Kavalan, Amis and Siraya. Language and Linguistics 51. 363–376.Google Scholar
. 2010. Origins and dispersal of the Formosan natives in the east coast. Taiwan Journal of Indigenous Studies 3(4). 1–9.Google Scholar
. 2012. The ethnic groups in Lanyang plain at an early stage, as seen in the language data (in Chinese). Kiwulan International Symposium, 13–26. Yilan: Archives of Yilan History.Google Scholar
. 2014. Texts of the Trobiawan dialect of Basay. Asian and African Lexicon Series 561. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Pacific, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.Google Scholar
Li, Paul Jen-kuei & Shigeru Tsuchida. 2006. Kavalan dictionary. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Liao, Hsiu-chuan. 2011. Some morphosyntactic differences between Formosan and Philippine languages. Language and Linguistics 12(4). 845–876.Google Scholar
. 2020. A reply to Blust (2019) “The Resurrection of Proto-Philippines.” Oceanic Linguistics 591. 426–449. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lin, Shu-yi. 2011. Reconstructing negative morphemes in Proto-Austronesian: Evidence from Formosan languages. MA thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Lin, Ying-chin. 2000. A reference grammar of Pazeh (in Chinese). Taipei: Yuanliu.Google Scholar
Liu, Dorinda Tsai-Hsiu. 2007. Basay nominal constructions. Working Papers in Linguistics 38(5). 1–29. Department of Linguistics, University of Hawai’i.Google Scholar
Lobel, Jason. 2013. Philippine and north Bornean languages: Issues in description, subgroup-ing, and reconstruction. PhD dissertation, University of Hawai’i.
Mabuchi, Tôichi. 1960. The aboriginal peoples of Formosa. In George Peter Murdock (ed.), Social structure in Southeast Asia, 127–40. Chicago: Quadrangle.Google Scholar
McColl, Hugh, Fernando Racimo, Lasse Vinner, Fabrice Demeter, Takashi Gakuhari, J. Victor Moreno-Mayar, George van Driem, … Eske Willersley. 2018. The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia. Science 3611. 88–92. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McMahon, April. 1994. Understanding language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mills, Roger. 1975. Proto South Sulawesi and Proto Austronesian phonology. PhD dissertation, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor.
Online Dictionary of Formosan languages (ODFL). [URL]
Pan, Jia-jung. 2012. A grammar of Lha’alua, an Austronesian language of Taiwan. PhD dissertation, James Cook University.
Pugach, Irina, Alexander Hübner, Hsiao-Chun Hung, Matthias Meyer, Mike Carson, & Mark Stoneking. 2021. Ancient DNA from Guam and the peopling of the Pacific. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(1). e2022112118. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rau, Victoria & Maa-neu Dong. 2006. Yami Texts with reference grammar and dictionary. Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Reid, Lawrence. 1966. An Ivatan Syntax. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication. Honolulu: Pacific and Asian Linguistics Institute, University of Hawai’i.Google Scholar
. 1982. The demise of Proto-Philippines. In Amran Halim, Lois Carrington & Stephen A. Wurm (eds.), Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics 21. 201–216. Canberra: The Australian National University.Google Scholar
. 2016. Accounting for variability in Malayo-Polynesian pronouns. Journal of Historical Linguistics 6(2). 130–64. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2020. Response to Blust, “The Resurrection of Proto-Philippines”. Oceanic Linguistics 59 (1/2). 374–393. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ross, Malcolm. 1995. Some current issues in Austronesian linguistics. In Darrell Tryon (ed.), Comparative Austronesian dictionary 11. 45–120. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
. 2002. The history and transitivity of Western Austronesian voice and voice marking. In Faye Wouk & Malcolm Ross (eds.), The history and typology of Western Austronesian voice systems, 63–78. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.Google Scholar
. 2005. The Batanic languages in relation to the early history of the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of Austronesian. Journal of Austronesian Studies 1(2). 1–23.Google Scholar
. 2009. Proto Austronesian verbal morphology: A reappraisal. In Alexander Adelaar & Andrew Pawley (eds.), Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Robert Blust, 295–326. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.Google Scholar
. 2012. In defense of Nuclear Austronesian (and against Tsouic). Language and Linguistics 13(6). 1253–1330.Google Scholar
. 2015. Reconstructing Proto Austronesian verb classes. Language and Linguistics 16(3). 279–345.Google Scholar
. 2020. Comment on Blust “The Resurrection of Proto-Philppines.” Oceanic Linguistics 591. 366–73. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez. 1997. A reference grammar of Ilocano. PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.
Maree, Rundell. 2007. Ibatan: A grammatical sketch of the language of Babuyan Claro Island. Linguistic Society of the Philippines Special Monograph Issue 531. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines.Google Scholar
Sagart, Laurent. 2004. The higher phylogeny of Austronesian and the position of Tai-Kadai. Oceanic Linguistics 43(2). 411–444. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
. 2014. In defense of the numeral-based model of Austronesian phylogeny, and of Tsouic. Language and Linguistics 15(6). 859–82.Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward. 1921. Language: An introduction to the study of speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.Google Scholar
Shepherd, John Robert. 1993. Statecraft and political economy on the Taiwan frontier, 1600–1800. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Alexander. 2017. The Western Malayo-Polynesian Problem. Oceanic Linguistics 56(2). 435–490. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Starosta, Stanley. 1995. A grammatical subgrouping of Formosan languages. In Paul Li, Cheng-hwa Tsang & Chiu-yu Tseng (eds.), Austronesian studies relating to Taiwan, 683–726. Symposium Series of the Institute of History and Philosophy, Academia Sinica, no. 3. Taipei: Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Steels, Luc & Eörs Szathmáry. 2018. The evolutionary dynamics of language. Biosystems 1641. 128–37. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sung, Li-May. 2018. A sketch grammar of Kanakanavu (in Chinese). New Taipei: Council of Indigenous Peoples.Google Scholar
Tanankingsing, Michael. 2009. A functional reference grammar of Cebuano. PhD dissertation, National Taiwan University.
Tätte, Kai, Ene Metspalu, Helen Post, Leire Palencia-Madrid, Javier R. Luis, Maere Reidla, Anneliis Rea, Erika Tamm, Everett J. Moding, Marian M. de Pancorbo & Ralph Garcia-Bertrand. 2021. The Ami and Yami aborigines of Taiwan and their genetic relationship to East Asian and Pacific populations. European Journal of Human Genetics 291, 1092–1102. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Teng, Stacy Fang-ching. 2008. A reference grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian language of Taiwan. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.Google Scholar
Thomason, Sarah & Terrence Kaufman. 1988. Language contact, creolization and genetic linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Trejaut, Jean A., Toomas Kivisild, Jun Hun Loo, Chien Liang Lee, Chun Lin He, Chia Jung Hsu, Zheng Yuan Li & Marie Lin. 2005. Traces of archaic Mitochondrial lineages persist in Austronesian speaking Formosan populations. PLoS Biology 31. e247. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tsukida, Naomi. 1993. The use of -en form in Fataan-Amis. Asian and African Linguistics 221. 123–140.Google Scholar
. 2008. Verb classification in Amis. In Mark Donohue & Søren Wichman (eds.), The typology of semantic alignment, 277–294. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ward, Jerome V., J. Stephen Athens and Carol Hotton. 1998. Holocene pollen records from Babeldaob island, Palau, Western Caroline islands. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle, March 29.
Wang, Chao-li. 2014. The vocabulary of the Tsou language (in Chinese). Chiayi: Lantan.Google Scholar
Weinreich, Uriel. 1953. Languages in contact: Findings and problems. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Wild, Ilka. 2018. Voice and transitivity in Kanakanavu. PhD dissertation, Universität Erfurt.
Wu, Joy Jing-lan. 2006. Verb classification, case marking, and grammatical relations in Amis. PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
Yamada, Yukihiro. 2014. A grammar of the Itbayat language of the Philippines. Himeji, Japan.Google Scholar
Yeh, Marie Mei-li. 2018. A sketch grammar of Saisiyat (in Chinese). New Taipei: Council of Indigenous Peoples.Google Scholar
Zeitoun, Elizabeth. 2000. A reference grammar of Rukai (in Chinese). Taipei: Yuanliu.Google Scholar
. 2007. A grammar of Mantauran (Rukai). Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
. 2018. A sketch grammar of Rukai (in Chinese). New Taipei: Council of Indigenous Peoples.Google Scholar
Zeitoun, Elizabeth, Tai-hwa Chu, & Lalo a Tahesh Kaybaybaw. 2015. A study of Saisiyat morphology. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication no. 40. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Zorc, David. 2020. Reactions to Blust’s “The Resurrection of Proto-Philippines.” Oceanic Linguistics 591. 394–425. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by (2)

Cited by two other publications

Liu, Dang, Albert Min-Shan Ko, Mark Stoneking & George Milner
2023. The genomic diversity of Taiwanese Austronesian groups: Implications for the “Into- and Out-of-Taiwan” models. PNAS Nexus 2:5 DOI logo
Hung, Hsiao-chun, Cheng-hwa Tsang, Zhenhua Deng, Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia, Rey A. Santiago, Mike T. Carson & Peter Bellwood
2022. Preceramic riverside hunter-gatherers and the arrival of Neolithic farmers in northern Luzon. Antiquity 96:388 ► pp. 848 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 4 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.