Article published In:
English World-WideVol. 36:2 (2015) ► pp.135–169
Outer and expanding circle Englishes
The competing roles of norm orientation and proficiency levels
The classification of English as a native (ENL), second (ESL) and foreign (EFL) language is traditionally mapped onto Kachru’s (1985) Inner, Outer and Expanding circles, respectively. This paper addresses the divide upheld between these different varietal types. We explore the preposition into using comparable corpora for all three varietal types: the International Corpus of English (ICE) for Inner and Outer Circle varieties, and a comparable Corpus of Dutch English to represent the Expanding Circle. Our results show that the least institutionalised varieties (Hong Kong and Dutch English) are the most dissimilar to the ENL varieties, and the most institutionalised variety (Singapore English) is the most similar. We also compare our results for the Corpus of Dutch English to the Dutch component of the International Corpus of Learner English. While the latter patterns with other learner varieties, the Dutch English corpus patterns with ESL varieties, suggesting that “Expanding Circle” and “EFL” are not synonymous.
Keywords: Expanding Circle, Outer Circle, ESL, ENL, EFL, Netherlands, norm orientation, prepositions
References
Ammon, Ulrich, and Grant McConnell
2002 English as an Academic Language in Europe. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Biewer, Carolin
2011 “Modal Auxiliaries in Second Language Varieties of English: A Learner’s Perspective”. In Joybrato Mukherjee and Marianne Hundt, eds. Exploring Second-Language Varieties of English and Learner Englishes: Bridging a Paradigm Gap. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 7–33. 
Booij, Geert
2001 “English as the Lingua Franca of Europe: A Dutch Perspective”. Lingua e Stile 361: 347–357.
Buschfeld, Sarah
2011 The English Language in Cyprus: An Empirical Investigation of Variety Status. PhD dissertation, University of Cologne.
Davydova, Julia
2012 “Englishes in the Outer and Expanding Circles: A Comparative Study”. World Englishes, 311: 366–385.
De Cock, Sylvie, and Sylviane Granger
2004 “High Frequency Words: The Bête Noire of Lexicographers and Learners Alike. A Close Look at the Verb Make in Five Monolingual Learners’ Dictionaries of English”. In Geoffrey Williams and Sandra Vessier, eds. Proceedings of the 11th EURALEX International Congress. Lorient: University of Southern Brittany, 233–243.
Edwards, Alison
2011 “Introducing the Corpus of Dutch English”. English Today 271: 10–14.
2014a English in the Netherlands: Functions, Forms and Attitudes. PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge.
2014b “The EFL–ESL Continuum and the Case of the Netherlands: A Comparative Analysis of the Progressive Aspect”. World Englishes 331: 173–94.
Erling, Elizabeth J
2002 “ ‘I Learn English Since Ten Years’: The Global English Debate and the German University Classroom”. English Today 181: 8–13.
European Commission
2012 Europeans and Their Languages: Special Eurobarometer 386. Brussels.
Gilquin, Gaëtanelle, and Sylviane Granger
2011 “From EFL to ESL: Evidence from the International Corpus of Learner English”. In Joybrato Mukherjee and Marianne Hundt, eds. Exploring Second-Language Varieties of English and Learner Englishes: Bridging a Paradigm Gap. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 55–78.
Granger, Sylviane, Estelle Dagneaux, Fanny Meunier, and Magali Paquot
2009 The International Corpus of Learner English. Version 2. Handbook and CD-ROM. Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses Universitaires de Louvain.
Greenbaum, Sidney
1991 “ICE: The International Corpus of English”. English Today 71: 3–7.
Gries, Stefan Th
2010 “Behavioral Profiles: A Fine-Grained and Quantitative Approach in Corpus-Based Lexical Semantics”. The Mental Lexicon 51: 323–346.
Gries, Stefan Th., and Joybrato Mukherjee
2010 “Lexical Gravity Across Varieties of English: An ICE-Based Study of N-Grams in Asian Englishes”. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 151: 520–548.
Hasselgren, Angela
1994 “Lexical Teddy Bears and Advanced Learners: A Study into the Ways Norwegian Students Cope with English Vocabulary”. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 41: 237–258.
Hofland, Knut, and Stig Johansson
1982 Word Frequencies in British and American English. Bergen: The Norwegian Computing Centre for the Humanities.
Holmes, Janet
1996 “The New Zealand Spoken Component of ICE: Some Methodological Challenges”. In Sidney Greenbaum, ed. Comparing English World-Wide: The International Corpus of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 163–181.
Hundt, Marianne, and Katrin Vogel
2011 “Overuse of the Progressive in ESL and Learner Englishes – Fact or Fiction?” In Joybrato Mukherjee and Marianne Hundt, eds. Exploring Second-Language Varieties of English and Learner Englishes: Bridging a Paradigm Gap. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 145–166.
Jenkins, Jennifer
2009 World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students (2nd ed.). Oxon: Routledge.
Kachru, Braj. B
1985 “Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle”. In Randolph Quirk and H.G. Widdowson, eds. English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11–30.
Kirkpatrick, Andy
2007 World Englishes: Implications for International Communication and English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laitinen, Mikko
2011 “Contacts and Variability in International Englishes: Compiling and Using the Corpus of English in Finland”. Studies in Variation, Contacts and Change in English 61. Retrieved from [URL]
Laporte, Samantha
2012 “Mind the Gap! Bridge between World and Learner Englishes in the Making”. English Text Construction 51: 264–291.
Mahboob, Ahmar
2008 “Pakistani English: An Overview of Its Syntax, Morphology, and Lexis”. In Rajend Mesthrie, ed. A Handbook of Varieties of English, Vol. 41. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Mair, Christian
2002 “Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English”. English Language and Linguistics 61: 105–132.
McArthur, Tom
1998 The English Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mesthrie, Rajend, and Rakesh Bhatt
2008 World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Meunier, Fanny
2009 “The Status of English in Belgium”. In Sylviane Granger, Estelle Dagneaux, Fanny Meunier, and Magali Paquot, eds. The International Corpus of Learner English. Version 2. Handbook and CD-Rom. Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 106–113.
Mukherjee, Joybrato
2009 “The Lexicogrammar of Present-Day Indian English: Corpus-Based Perspectives on Structural Nativisation”. In Ute Römer and Rainer Schulze, eds. Exploring the Lexis-Grammar Interface. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 117–135.
Mukherjee, Joybrato, and Stefan Th. Gries
2009 “Collostructional Nativisation in New Englishes: Verb-Construction Associations in the International Corpus of English”. English World-Wide 301: 27–51.
Mukherjee, Joybrato, and Sebastian Hoffmann
2006 “Describing Verb-Complementational Profiles of New Englishes: A Pilot Study of Indian English”. English World-Wide 271: 147–173.
Mukherjee, Joybrato, and Marianne Hundt
2011 “Introduction”. In Joybrato Mukherjee, and Marianne Hundt, eds. Exploring Second-Language Varieties of English and Learner Englishes: Bridging a Paradigm Gap. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1–5.
Mwangi, Serah
2003 Prepositions in Kenyan English: A Corpus-Based Study in Lexico-Grammatical Variation. Aachen: Shaker Verlag.
Nesselhauf, Nadja
2009 “Co-Selection Phenomena Across New Englishes: Parallels (and Differences) to Foreign Learner Varieties”. English World-Wide 301: 1–26.
Peters, Pam
1998 “In Quest of International English: Mapping the Levels of Regional Divergence”. In Antoinette Renouf, ed. Explorations in Corpus Linguistics. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 281–292.
Quirk, Randolph, Jan Svartvik, Geoffrey Leech, and Sidney Greenbaum
1985 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York: Longman.
Schneider, Edgar W
2003 “The Dynamics of New Englishes: From Identity Construction to Dialect Birth”. Language, 791: 233–281.
2007 Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2012 “Exploring the Interface between World Englishes and Second Language Acquisition – and Implications for English as a Lingua Franca”. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca 11: 57–91.
Suzuki, Ryota, and Hidetoshi Shimodaira
2006 “pvclust: An R Package for Hierarchical Clustering with p-values”. Bioinformatics 221: 1540–1542.
Van Rooy, Bertus
2006 “The Extension of the Progressive Aspect in Black South African English”. World Englishes 251: 37–64.
Werner, Valentin
2013a “Temporal Adverbials and the Present Perfect/Past Tense Alternation”. English World-Wide 341 202–240.
2013b The Present Perfect in World Englishes: Charting Unity and Diversity. PhD dissertation, University of Bamberg.
Cited by
Cited by 30 other publications
Chen, Jiaxin, Dechao Li & Kanglong Liu
2024. Unraveling cognitive constraints in constrained languages: a comparative study of syntactic complexity in translated, EFL, and native varieties. Language Sciences 102 ► pp. 101612 ff. 
Deshors, Sandra C.
2018. Modeling World Englishes in the 21st century. In Modeling World Englishes [Varieties of English Around the World, G61], ► pp. 1 ff.
Deshors, Sandra C. & Sandra Götz
2020. Common ground across globalized English varieties: A multivariate exploration of mental predicates in World Englishes. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 16:1 ► pp. 1 ff.
Deshors, Sandra C., Sandra Götz & Samantha Laporte
2016. Linguistic innovations in EFL and ESL. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 2:2 ► pp. 131 ff.
EDWARDS, ALISON
2017. ICE Age 3: The Expanding Circle. World Englishes 36:3 ► pp. 404 ff.
Edwards, Alison & Rutger-Jan Lange
Flowerdew, John
2022. Models of English for research publication purposes. World Englishes 41:4 ► pp. 571 ff.
Gilquin, Gaëtanelle
2018. American and/or British influence on L2 Englishes – Does context tip the scale(s)?. In Modeling World Englishes [Varieties of English Around the World, G61], ► pp. 187 ff.
GUT, ULRIKE & ROBERT FUCHS
2017. Exploring speaker fluency with phonologically annotated ICE corpora. World Englishes 36:3 ► pp. 387 ff.
Hickey, Raymond
2019. English in the German-Speaking World: The Nature and Scale of Language Influence. In English in the German-Speaking World, ► pp. 1 ff.
Hilpert, Martin
2022. Review of Laporte, Samantha. 2021. Corpora, Constructions, New Englishes. A Constructional and Variationist Approach to Verb Patterning. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ISBN: 978-9-027-20850-7. https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.100. Research in Corpus Linguistics 10:2 ► pp. 147 ff.
Horch, Stephanie
2016. Innovative conversions in South-East Asian Englishes. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 2:2 ► pp. 278 ff.
Hundt, Marianne
2019. Corpus-Based Approaches to World Englishes. In The Cambridge Handbook of World Englishes, ► pp. 506 ff.
Kirk, John & Gerald Nelson
2018. The International Corpus of English project: A progress report. World Englishes 37:4 ► pp. 697 ff.
Koch, Christopher, Claudia Lange & Sven Leuckert
2016. “This hair-style called as ‘duck tail’”. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 2:2 ► pp. 151 ff.
KRUGER, HAIDEE & BERTUS VAN ROOY
2017. Editorial practice and the progressive in Black South African English. World Englishes 36:1 ► pp. 20 ff.
MERILÄINEN, LEA
2017. The progressive form in learner Englishes: Examining variation across corpora. World Englishes 36:4 ► pp. 760 ff.
Meriläinen, Lea
2018. The progressive form and its functions in spoken learner English. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 4:2 ► pp. 164 ff.
Meriläinen, Lea
2020. The progressive form and its functions in spoken learner English. In Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition and Learner Corpus Research [Benjamins Current Topics, 108], ► pp. 24 ff.
Mollin, Sandra
2019. English in Germany and the European Context. In English in the German-Speaking World, ► pp. 31 ff.
Perez, Danae
2019. Language Contact and Competition in Latin America. In Language Competition and Shift in New Australia, Paraguay, ► pp. 19 ff.
Perez, Danae
2019. Concluding Remarks and Outlook. In Language Competition and Shift in New Australia, Paraguay, ► pp. 213 ff.
Rautionaho, Paula, Sandra C. Deshors & Lea Meriläinen
2018. Revisiting the ENL-ESL-EFL continuum: A multifactorial approach to grammatical aspect in spoken Englishes. ICAME Journal 42:1 ► pp. 41 ff.
Schneider, Gerold & Gaëtanelle Gilquin
2016. Detecting innovations in a parsed corpus of learner English. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 2:2 ► pp. 177 ff.
van Rooy, Bertus & Haidee Kruger
2016. The innovative progressive aspect of Black South African English. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 2:2 ► pp. 205 ff.
van Rooy, Bertus & Haidee Kruger
2018. Hybridity, globalisation and models of Englishes. In Modeling World Englishes [Varieties of English Around the World, G61], ► pp. 77 ff.
Werner, Valentin
2016. Overlap and divergence – aspects of the present perfect in World Englishes. In World Englishes [Varieties of English Around the World, G57], ► pp. 113 ff.
[no author supplied]
[no author supplied]
[no author supplied]
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 29 march 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.