Cover not available
Part of
Handbook of Pragmatics: Manual
Edited by Jef Verschueren and Jan-Ola Östman
[Handbook of Pragmatics M2] 2022
► pp. 250–278

Computational pragmatics

Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Sentences in context
    • 2.1Intentions, inferencing and planning
    • 2.2Discourse relations
  • 3.Interactive situations
    • 3.1Natural language interfaces
    • 3.2Question answering
    • 3.3Conversational agents
  • 4.Dialog modeling
    • 4.1Cooperation
    • 4.2Shared context and grounding
    • 4.3Topic and new information in the presentation of information
  • 5.Generating discourse
  • 6.Situated interaction with intelligent agents
    • 6.1Intelligent agents
    • 6.2Modeling the user
      • 6.2.1User modeling and dialog systems
      • 6.2.2Dimensions of user models
      • 6.2.3Construction of user profiles
      • 6.2.4Instantiating the user model: Collecting evidence in dialog
      • 6.2.5User modeling in simulated dialog systems
    • 6.3Multimodality and affect
  • 7.Discussion and conclusion
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
Published online: 3 October 2022
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/hop.m2.comm9
References (185)
References
Aleven, V., I. Roll, B. M. Mclaren, E. J. Ryu and K. R. Koedinger. 2005. “An architecture to combine meta-cognitive and cognitive tutoring: Pilot testing the Help Tutor.” Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education, 17–24. Amsterdam: IOS.Google Scholar
Allen, J. F. 1983. “Recognizing intentions from natural language utterances.” In Computational Models of Discourse, ed. by M. Brady and R. Berwick, 107–166. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
1994. Understanding Natural Language. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. F. and D. Litman. 1986. “Plans, goals and language.” Proceedings of the IEEE 74: 939–947. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. F. and C. Perrault. 1980. “Analyzing intention in utterances.” Artificial Intelligence 15: 143–178. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allgayer, J., K. Harbush, A. Kobsa, C. Reddig, N. Reithinger and D. Schmauks 1989. “XTRA: A natural language access system for expert systems.” International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 31(2): 161–195. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allwood, J. 1976. Linguistic Communication as Action and Cooperation [Gothenburg Monographs in Linguistics 2]. Department of Linguistics, University of Göteborg.Google Scholar
1978. “On the analysis of communicative action.” In The Structure of Action, ed. by M. Brenner, 168–191. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
1994. “Obligations and options in dialogue.” Think Quarterly 3: 9–18.Google Scholar
Allwood, J., L. Cerrato, K. Jokinen, C. Navarretta and P. Paggio. 2007. “The MUMIN Coding Scheme for the annotation of feedback, Turn Management and Sequencing.” LRE Journal 41 (3–4): 273–287. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Allwood, J., D. Traumand and K. Jokinen 2000. “Cooperation, dialogue, and ethics.” International Journal for Human-Computer Studies 53: 871–914. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
André, E. and C. Pelachaud. 2010. “Interacting with embodied conversational agents.” In Speech Technology: Theory and Applications, ed. by K. Jokinen and F. Cheng, 123–150. New York: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Andriessen, J., K. De Smedt and M. Zock 1996. “Discourse planning: Empirical research and computer models.” In Computational Psycholinguistics: AI and Connectionist Models of Human Language Processing, ed. by A. Dijkstra and K. De Smedt, 247–278. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Appelt, D. E. 1985. “Planning English sentences.”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Aust, H., M. Oerder, F. Seide and V. Steinbiss 1995. “The philips automatic train timetable information system.” Speech Communication 17: 249–262. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Austin, J. L. 1962. How to do Things with Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Barr, A. and E. A. Feigenbaum. 1981. The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann.Google Scholar
Bavelas, J. and N. Chovil. 2000. “Visible acts of meaning. An integrated message model of language in face-to-face dialogue.” Journal of Language and Social Psychology 19(2): 163–194. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Beaugrande, R.-A. De and W. U. Dressler. 1981. Introduction to Text Analysis. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Black, W., J. Allwood, H. Bunt, F. Dols, C. Donzella, G. Ferrari, J. Gallagher, R. Haidan, B. Imlah, K. Jokinen, J.-M. Lancel, J. Nivre, G. Sabah and T. Wachtel 1991. “A Pragmatics based language understanding system.” Proceedings of the ESPRIT Conference .
Bobrow, D. 1968. “Natural language input for a computer problem-solving system.” In Semantic Information Processing, ed. by M. Minsky, 135–215. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bonarini, A. 1987. “User modeling in person-machine conversation: A Computational Approach.” Proceedings of COGNITIVA-87 87: 377–382.Google Scholar
Bunt, H. 1990. “DIT – Dynamic interpretation in text and dialogue.” In Papers from the Second Symposium on Languages and Logic, ed. by L. Kálmán and L. Polós, 67–104. Budapest: Akademiai Kiadó.Google Scholar
1990. 2006. “Dimensions in dialogue act annotation.” In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2006) , 919–924. Genoa.
Bunt, H. C., J. Alexandersson, J.-W. Choe, A. C. Fang, K. Hasida, V. Petukhova, A. Popescu-Belis and D. Traum 2012. “ISO 24617–2: A semantically-based standard for dialogue annotation.” In Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2012) , 430–437. Istanbul.Google Scholar
Carberry, S. 1983. “Tracking user goals in an information-seeking environment.” Proceedings AAAI 83: 59–63.Google Scholar
1988. “Modeling the user's plans and goals.” Computational Linguistics 14: 23–37.Google Scholar
1990. Plan Recognition in Natural Language Dialogue. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Cawsey, A. 1990. “Generating explanatory discourse.” In Current Research in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, C. Mellish and M. Zock, 75–101. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Chin, D. 1989. “KNOME: modeling what the user knows in Uc.” In User Modeling in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 74–107. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chu-Carroll, J. 2000. “MIMIC: An adaptive mixed initiative spoken dialogue system for information queries.” Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing (ANLP) 97–104. DOI logo
Claassen, W. 1992. “Generating referring expressions in a multimodal environment.” In New concepts in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, E. Hovy, D. Rösner and O. Stock, 247–262. London: Pinter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Clark, H. H. and E. F. Schaefer. 1989. “Contributing to discourse.” Cognitive Science 13: 259–294. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Clark, H. H. and D. Wilkes-Gibbs. 1986. “Referring as a collaborative process.” Cognition 22: 1–39. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P. and C. Perrault. 1979. “Elements of a plan-based theory of speech acts.” Cognitive Science 3: 177–212. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P. R. and H. J. Levesque. 1990. “Persistence, intention, and commitment.” In Intentions in Communication, ed. by P. R. Cohen, J. Morgan and M. E. Pollack, 33–69. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
. 1991. “Teamwork.” Nous 25(4): 487–512. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P., J. Morgan and M. Pollack (eds) 1990. Intentions in Communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Copeland, J. 1993. Artificial Intelligence: A Philosophical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Core, M. G. and J. F. Allen. 1997. “Coding dialogs with the DAMSL annotation scheme.” AAAI Fall Symposium on Communicative Action in Humans and Machines . Boston, MA.
Curto, S., A. C. Mendesand and L. Coheur. 2011. “Exploring linguistically-rich patterns for question generation.” Proceedings of the UCNLG+Eval: Language Generation and Evaluation Workshop , Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, July 31, 2011: 33–38. Assocation for Computational Linguistics.
Dai, W. and R. Cohen. 2003. “Dynamic personalized TV recommendation system.” Proceedings of the UM 2003 Workshop on Personalization in Future TV , Pittsburgh, US: 12–21.
Dale, R., E. Hovy, D. Rösner and O. Stock (eds). 1992. Aspects of Automated Natural Language Generation. Berlin: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dale, R., C. Mellish and M. Zock (eds). 1990a. Current Research in Natural Language Generation. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
1990b. “Introduction.” In Current Research in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, C. Mellish and M. Zock, 1–15. London: Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Kleer, J. 1986. “An assumption-based TMS.” Artificial Intelligence 28(2): 127–162. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Doyle, J. 1979. “A truth maintenance system.” Artificial Intelligence 12: 231–272. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1983. “The ins and outs of reason maintenance.” Proceedings IJCAI 83: 352–354.Google Scholar
Ekman, P. and W. V. Friesen. 2003. Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from Facial Cues. Cambridge, MA: Malor Books.Google Scholar
Ferrucci, D., E. Brown, J. Chu-Carroll, J. Fan, D. Gondek, A. A. Kalyanpur, A. Lally, J. W. Murdock, E. Nyberg and J. Prager 2010. “Building Watson: An overview of the DeepQA project.” AI Magazine 31(3): 59–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Finin, T. 1989. “GUMS – A general user modeling shell.” In User models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 411–430. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Garnham, A. 1995. “Computational models of discourse comprehension.” In Computational Psycholinguistics, ed. by A. Dijkstra and K. De Smedt. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Gillis, S., W. Daelemans and K. De Smedt 2009. “Artificial intelligence.” In Cognition and Pragmatics [Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights, Vol. 3], ed. by D. Sandra, J.-O. Östman and J. Verschueren, 16–40. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Goffman, E. 1970. Strategic Interaction. Blackwell: Oxford.Google Scholar
Goodwin, C. 1981. Conversational Organization: Interaction between Speakers and Hearers. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
2000. “Action and embodiment within situated human interaction.” Journal of Pragmatics 32: 1489–1522. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Green, B., A. Wolf, C. Chomskyand and K. Laughery 1963. “BASEBALL: An automatic question-answerer.” In Computers and Thought, ed. by E. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Grice, H. P. 1975. “Logic and Conversation.” In Syntax and Semantics. Vol. 3: Speech Acts, ed. by P. Cole and J. L. Morgan, 41–58. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Grosz, B. 1977. “The representation and use of focus in a system for understanding dialogs.” Proceedings IJCAI- 7767–76.Google Scholar
Grosz, B. J., A. K. Joshi and S. Weinstein. 1995. “Centering: A framework for modeling the local coherence of discourse.” Computational Linguistics 21(2): 203–225.Google Scholar
Grosz, B. J. and C. L. Sidner. 1986. “Attention, intentions, and the structure of discourse.” Computational Linguistics 12 (3): 175–203.Google Scholar
. 1990. “Plans for discourse.” In Intentions in Communication, ed. by P. R. Cohen, J. Morgan and M. E. Pollack, 417–444. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gustafson, J., N. Lindberg and M. Lundeberg. 1999. “The August spoken dialogue system.” Proceedings of Eurospeech: Sixth European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology: 1151–1154. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hasan 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Harnad, S. 1989. “Minds, Machines and Searle.” Journal of Theoretical and Experimental Artificial Intelligence 1: 5–25. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hayes, P., S. Harnad, D. Perlis and N. Block. 1992. “Virtual symposium on the virtual mind.” Minds and Machines 2: 217–238. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Heeman, P. A. and J. F. Allen. 1997. “Intonational boundaries, speech repairs, and discourse markers: Modeling spoken dialog.” Proceedings of 35th ACL and 8th EACL: 254–261.Google Scholar
Helander, M. (ed) 1988. Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, J. 1979. “Coherence and coreference.” Cognitive Science 3(1): 67–90. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, J. R., M. Stickel, D. Appelt and P. Martin. 1990. Interpretation as Abduction. SRI Technical Note 499. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.Google Scholar
Horacek, H. and M. Zock (eds) 1993. New Concepts in Natural Language Generation. London: Pinter.Google Scholar
Hovy, E. 1988. Generating Natural Language under Pragmatic Constraints. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1988 1990. “Unresolved problems in paragraph planning.” In Current Research in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, C. Mellish and M. Zock, 17–45. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
1988. 1991. “Approaches to the planning of coherent text.” In Natural Language Generation in Artificial Intelligence and Computational Linguistics, ed. by C. Paris, W. Swartout and W. Mann, 83–102. Boston: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Jameson, A., W. Hoeppner and W. Wahlster 1980. “The natural language system HAM-RPM as a hotel manager.” In GI–10: Jahrestagung Saarbrücken, ed. by R. Wilhelm. Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Jokinen, K. 1996. “Goal formulation based on communicative principles.” Proceedings of the 16th COLING: 598–603. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2009. Constructive Dialogue Modelling: Speech Interaction and Rational Agents. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jokinen, K. and B. Gambäck. 2004. “DUMAS – Adaptation and robust information processing for mobile speech interfaces.” Proceedings of the 1st Baltic Conference “Human Language Technologies – The Baltic Perspective”, Riga, Latvia: 115–120.Google Scholar
Jokinen, K. and K. Kanto. 2004. ”User expertise modelling and adaptivity in a speech-based e-mail system.” Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics ACL-04, Barcelona, Spain, 87–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jokinen, K. and M. F. Mctear. 2009. Spoken Dialogue Systems. Synthesis lectures on human language technologies. San Rafael, CA: Morgan and Claypool.Google Scholar
Jokinen, K. and S. Pärkson. 2011. “Synchrony and copying in conversational interactions.” Proceedings of the 3rd Nordic Symposium on Multimodal Communication [ NEALT Proceedings Series, Vol. 15], ed. by P. Paggio, E. Ahlsén, J. Allwood, K. Jokinen, C. Navarretta. Tartu University Library, (digitally [URL]) .Google Scholar
Jokinen, K., H. Tanaka and A. Yokoo 1998. “Context management with topics for spoken language systems.” Proceedings of the Joint International Conference of Computational Linguistics and the Association for Computational Linguistics (COLING-ACL’98), Montreal, Canada: 631–637.Google Scholar
Jokinen, K., M. Nishida and S. Yamamoto. (in print). “Turn-taking and gaze in conversational interactions.” ACM Trans. Interactive Intelligent Systems.
Kaplan, S. 1983. “Cooperative responses from a portable natural language database query system.” In Computational Models of Discourse, ed. by M. Brady and R. Berwick. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Kass, R. and T. Finin 1988. “Modeling the user in natural language systems.” Computational Linguistics 14: 5–22.Google Scholar
Kempen, G. 1989. “Language generation systems.” In Computational Linguistics: An International Handbook on Computer Oriented Language Research and Applications, ed. by I. S. Bátori, W. Lenders and W. Putschke, 471–480. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
(ed) 1987. Natural Language Generation: New Results in Artificial Intelligence, Psychology and Linguistics. Dordrecht: Nijhoff (Kluwer Academic Publishers). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kendon, A. 1967. “Some functions of gaze direction in social interaction.” Acta Psychologica 26: 22–63. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2004. Gesture: Visible Action as Utterance. Cambridge University Press.. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kobsa, A. 1989. “A taxonomy of beliefs and goals for user models in dialog systems.” In User Models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 52–68. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Koiso, H., Y. Horiuchi, S. Tutiya, A. Ichikawa and Y. Den. 1998. “An analysis of turn taking and backchannels based on prosodic and syntactic features in japanese map task dialogs.” Language and Speech 41(3–4): 295–321.. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Krahmer, E., M. Swerts, M. Theune and M. Weegels 1999. “Problem spotting in human-machine interaction.” Proceedings of Eurospeech ’991423–1426. Budapest, Hungary. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lehnert, W. 1980. “Question answering in natural language processing.” In Natural Language Question Answering, ed. by L. Bolc. Munich: Hanser.Google Scholar
Levin, E., R. Pieraccini and W. Eckert 2000. “A stochastic model of human-machine interaction for learning dialog strategies.” IEEE Trans. on Speech and Audio Processing 8(1): 11-23. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Litman, D. 1986. “Linguistic Coherence: A plan based alternative.” Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: 215–223. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Litman, D., M. Kearns, S. Singh and M. Walker. 2000. “Automatic optimization of dialogue management.” Proceedings of the 18th COLING: 502–508. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Litman, D. J. and S. Pan. 2002. “Designing and evaluating an adaptive spoken dialogue system.” User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction 12(2/3): 111–137. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Luff, P., N. Gilbert and D. Frohlich (eds). 1990. Computers and Conversation. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Luger, G. F. and W. A. Stubblefield. 1983. Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, 2nd ed. Redwood City, CA: Benjamin Cummings.Google Scholar
Mancini, M., G. Castellano, E. Bevacqua and C. Peters. 2007. “Copying behaviour of expressive motion.” Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4418: 180–191. (Proceedings of the Computer Vision/Computer Graphics Collaboration Techniques. Third International Conference, MIRAGE 2007). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mann, W. and S. Thompson. 1988. “Rhetorical structure theory: Towards a functional theory of text organization.” Text 8: 243–281. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Martin, J. C., P. Paggio, P. Kuenlein, R. Stiefelhagen and F. Pianesi (eds) 2007. Multimodal Corpora for Modelling Human Multimodal Behaviour. Special issue of theInternational Journal of Language Resources and Evaluation 41(3–4). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mccoy, K. 1988. “Reasoning on a highlighted user model to respond to misconceptions.” Computational Linguistics 14 (3): 52–63.Google Scholar
1989. “Highlighting a user model to repond to misconceptions.” In User Models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 233–254. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mccoy, K. and J. Cheng, J. 1991. “Focus of attention: Constraining what can be said next.” In Natural Language Generation in Artificial Intelligence and Computational Linguistics, ed. by C. Paris, W. Swartout and W. Mann, 103–124. Boston: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mcdonald, D. 1992. “Natural language generation.” In Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence, (2nd ed.) ed. by S. Shapiro, 983–997. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Mckeown, K. 1985. Text Generation: Using Discourse Strategies and Focus Constraints to Generate Natural Language Text. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mckeown, K., M. Elhadad, Y. Fukumoto, J. Lim, C. Lombardi, J. Robin and F. Smadja. 1990. “Natural language generation in COMET.” In Current Research in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, C. Mellish and M. Zock, 103–139. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mcroy, S. W. and G. Hirst 1995. “The repair of speech act misunderstandings by abductive inference.” Computational Linguistics 21: 5–478.Google Scholar
Mctear, M. 1987. “The articulate computer.”Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Moeschler, J. 1989. Modélisation du dialogue. Paris: Hermès.Google Scholar
Moore, J. and W. Swartout 1991. “A reactive approach to explanation.” In Natural Language Generation in Artificial Intelligence and Computational Linguistics, ed. by C. Paris, W. Swartout and W. Mann, 3–48. Boston/Dordrecht/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moore, J. D. 1989. “Responding to ‘Huh’: Answering vaguely articulated followup questions.” Proceedings CHI’:89 91.Google Scholar
Morik, K. 1989. “User models and conversational settings: Modeling the user's wants.” In User Models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 364–385. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Morik, K. and C. Rollinger. 1985. “The real estate agent: modeling users by uncertain reasoning.” AI Magazine 6: 44–52.Google Scholar
Moukas, A. and P. Maes 1998. “Amalthaea: An evolving multi-agent information filtering and discovery system for the WWW.” Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems 1(1): 59–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A. 1986. “Cognitive engineering.” In User Centered System Design, ed. by D. Norman and S. Draper, 32–65. Hillsdale: Erlbaum. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. and S. Draper (eds) 1986. User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction. Hillsdale: Erlbaum. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Norvig, P. 1992. Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.Google Scholar
Padilha, E. G. and J. C. Carletta. 2003. “Nonverbal behaviours improving a simulation of small group discussion.” Proceedings of the First International Nordic Symposium of Multi-modal Communication , Copenhagen, Denmark, 25–26, September 2003.Google Scholar
Paris, C. 1988. “Tailoring object descriptions to the user's level of expertise.” Computational Linguistics 14: 64–78.Google Scholar
1991. “Generation and explanation: Building an explanation facility for the explainable expert system framework.” In Natural Language Generation in Artificial Intelligence and Computational Linguistics, ed. by C. Paris, W. Swartout and W. Mann, 49–82. Boston: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paris, C. and K. Mckeown. 1987. “Discourse strategies for describing complex physical objects.” In Natural Language Generation, ed. by G. Kempen, 97–115. Dordrecht: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paris, C. L., W. R. Swartout, and W. C. Mann (eds) 1991. Natural Language Generation in Artificial Intelligence and Computational Linguistics. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paris, C. L. 1988. “Tailoring object descriptions to a user's level of expertise.” Computational Linguistics 14(3): 64–78.Google Scholar
Pickering, M. J. and S. Garrod 2004. “Toward a mechanistic psychology of dialogue.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2(2): 169–225. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pollack, M. E. 1986. “A model of plan inference that distinguishes between the beliefs of actors and observers.” Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics207–214. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. 1984. Computation and Cognition. Cambridge: Bradford Books.Google Scholar
Quilici, A. 1989. “Detecting and responding to plan-oriented misconceptions.” In User Models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 108–132. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ravichandran, D. and E. Hovy. 2002. “Learning surface text patterns for a question answering system.” In ACL’02: Proc. 40th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics, 41–47. Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
Reeves, N. and C. Nass 1996. The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media like Real People and Places. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Reichman, R. 1985. Getting Computers to Talk like You and Me: Discourse Context, Focus and Semantics. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Reiter, E. 1990. “Generating descriptions that exploit a user's domain knowledge.” In Current Research in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, C. Mellish and M. Zock, 257–285. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Rich, E. 1979. “User modelling via stereotypes.” Cognitive Science 3: 329–354. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1983. “Users are Individuals: individualizing user models.” International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 18: 188–214. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1989. “Stereotypes and user modeling.” In User Models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 35–51. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Robinson, A. 1981. “Determining verb phrase referents in dialogs.” American Journal of Computational Linguistics 7: 1–18.Google Scholar
Rosch, E. and C. Mervis. 1975. “Family resemblances.” Cognitive Psychology 7: 573–605. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Russell, S. J. and P. Norvig. 2009. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. (3rd edition, 1st edition 1995. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Sacks, H., E. Schegloff and G. Jefferson. 1974. “A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation.” Language 50(4): 696–735. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sadek, D., P. Bretier and F. Panaget 1997. “ARTIMIS: Natural dialogue meets rational agency.” Proceedings of IJCAI-97, 1030–1035.Google Scholar
Schank, R. 1972. “Conceptual dependency: A theory of natural language understanding.” Cognitive Psychology 3: 552–630. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schank, R. and R. Abelson. 1977. Scripts, Plans, Goals and Understanding. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schatzmann, J., K. Weilhammer, M. N. Stuttle and S. Young. 2006. “A survey of statistical user simulation techniques for reinforcement-learning of dialogue management strategies.” Knowledge Engineering Review 21(2): 97–126. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Scheffler, K. and S. Young 2000. “Probabilistic simulation of human-machine dialogues.” Proceedings of the IEEE ICASSP, 1217–1220. Istanbul, Turkey. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Scherer, K. 2005. “What are emotions? And how can they be measured?” Social Science Information 44: 695–729. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schröder, M., E. Bevacqua, R. Cowie, F. Eyben, H. Gunes, D. Heylen, M. Ter Maat, G. Mckeown, S. Pammi, M. Pantic, C. Pelachaud, B. Schuller, E. De Sevin, M. Valstar and M. Wöllmer. 2012. “Building autonomous sensitive artificial listeners.” IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing 3(2): 165–183. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schuster, E., D. Chin, R. Cohen, A. Kobsa, K. Morik, K. Sparck Jones and W. Wahlster. 1988. “Discussion section on the relationship between user models and discourse models.” Computational Linguistics 14(3): 79–103.Google Scholar
Scott, D. and C. De Souza 1990. “Getting the message across in rst-based text generation.” In Current Research in Natural Language Generation, ed. by R. Dale, C. Mellish and M. Zock, 47–73. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. 1975. “Indirect speech acts.” In Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 3, Speech Acts, ed. by P. Cole and J. Morgan, 59–82. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
1979. Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1984. Minds, Brains and Machines. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Shapiro, S. 1992. Encyclopaedia of Artificial Intelligence, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sidner, C. 1983. “What the speaker means: The recognition of speaker’s plans in discourse.” Computers and Mathematics with Applications 9: 71–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1985. “Plan parsing for intended response recognition of speaker’s plan in discourse.” Computational Intelligence 1: 1–10. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Simmons, R., S. Klein and K. Mcconlogue. 1964. “Indexing and dependency logic for answering English questions.” American Documentation 15: 196–202. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, J. and R. M. Coulthard 1975. Towards an Analysis of Discourse. The English used by Teachers and Pupils. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sparck Jones, K. 1989. “Realism about user modeling.” In User models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 341–363. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1991. “Tailoring the output to the user: What does user modelling in generation mean?” In Natural Language Generation in Artificial Intelligence and Computational Linguistics, ed. by C. Paris, W. Swartout and W. Mann, 201–225. Boston: Kluwer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sperber, D. and D. Wilson. 1986. Relevance. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Stolcke, A., K. Ries, N. Coccaro, E. Shriberg, R. Bates, D. Jurafsky, P. Taylor, R. Martin, C. Van Ess-Dykema and M. Meteer. 2000. “Dialogue act modeling for automatic tagging and recognition of conversational speech.” Computational Linguistics 26(3): 339–373. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Strube, M. and U. Hahn 1999. “Functional centering – grounding referential coherence in information structure.” Computational Linguistics 25(3): 309–344.Google Scholar
Thompson, H. 1977. “Strategy and tactics in language production.” In Papers from the Thirteenth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, ed. by W. Beach, S. Fox and S. Philosoph, 651–668.Google Scholar
Traum, D. R. 1994. A computational theory of grounding in natural language conversation. Natural Language Conversation. Ph.D. Thesis [TR 545], University of Rochester, Department of Computer Science.Google Scholar
Traum, D. R. and J. F. Allen 1994. “Discourse obligations in dialogue processing.” Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics 1–8. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Trevarthen, C. 1984. “Emotions in infancy: Regulators of contact and relationships with persons.” In Approaches to Emotion, ed. by K. Scherer and P. Ekman, 129–157. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Turing, A. 1950. “Computing machinery and intelligence.” Mind 49: 433–460. [Reprinted in Minds and machines, ed. by A. Andersen, 4–30. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1964.] DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wahlster, W. and A. Kobsa. 1989. “User models in dialog systems.” In: User Models in Dialogue Systems, ed. by A. Kobsa and W. Wahlster, 4–33. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wahlster, W., H. Marburger, A. Jameson and S. Busemann. 1983. “Overanswering yes-no questions: Extended responses in a NL interface to a vision system.” In Proceedings of the 8th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI’83) , 643–646, Karlsruhe. International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence.Google Scholar
Walker, M. A., J. C. Fromer and S. Narayanan. 1998. “Learning optimal dialogue strategies: A case study of a spoken agent for email.” Proceedings of ACL-COLING’98: 1345–1352.Google Scholar
Walker, M. A., D. J. Litman, C. A. Kamm and A. Abella 1997. “Evaluating spoken dialogue agents with PARADISE: Two case studies.” Computer Speech and Language 12(3): 317–347. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wallace, R. S. 2009. “The anatomy of ALICE.” In Parsing the Turing Test, ed. by R. Epstein, G. Roberts and G. Beber, 181–210. Berlin: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Weiser, M. 1991. “The Computer for the twenty-first century.” Scientific American 265(3): 94–104. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Weizenbaum, J. 1966. “Eliza – a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine.” Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 9: 36–45. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1984. Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgement to Calculation. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Wilcock, G. and K. Jokinen. (submitted). “Speech, gaze and gesturing – multimodal open-domain conversations with the Nao robot.” IWSDS-2012, Paris.
Wilensky, R. 1981. “PAM.” In Inside Computer Understanding, ed. by R. Schank and C. Riesbeck, 136–179. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
1983. Planning and Understanding. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Wilensky, R., Y. Arens and D. Chin. 1984. “Talking to UNIX in English.” Communications of the ACM 27: 574–593. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wilensky, R., D. Chin, M. Luria, J. Martin, J. Mayfield and D. Wu. 1988. “The Berkeley UNIX Consultant Project.”Computational Linguistics 14: 35–84.Google Scholar
Williams, J. D. and S. J. Young 2007. “Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes for Spoken Dialog Systems.” Computer Speech and Language 21(2): 231–422. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Winograd, T. 1972. Understanding Natural Language. New York: Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Winston, P. H. 1992. Artificial Intelligence, 3rd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Woods, W. A., R. N. Kaplan and B. N. Webber. 1972. The Lunar Sciences Natural Language Information System: Final Report [BBN Report 2378]. Cambridge, MA: Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.Google Scholar
Zock, M. and G. Sabah. (eds). 1988. Advances in Natural Language Generation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. London: Pinter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar