Chapter 1.Introduction
1
1.1General research context
2
1.2Introducing the field of research
4
1.3Approaching the investigation of biscriptuality
6
Chapter 2.Theoretical background
13
2.1Terminology and theoretical framework
13
2.1.1From literacy to biliteracy
13
2.1.2From biliteracy to biscriptuality
18
2.1.3Terminology on writing
20
2.1.4Heritage language and majority language
20
2.1.5Transfer
21
2.2Continua of biliteracy as framework for this study
22
2.2.1The continua of biliterate media
25
2.2.2The continua of biliterate development
28
2.2.3Contexts of biliteracy
33
2.2.4Summing up 2.2
36
2.3Predictors of biliteracy development
37
2.3.1Working model by Goldenberg et al.
38
2.3.2Family-level variables
40
2.3.2.1Family demographics and family literacy resources
41
2.3.2.2Language and literacy practices
42
2.3.3Individual level variables
45
2.3.3.1Individual demographics
46
2.3.3.2Individual educational characteristics
47
2.3.4Summing up 2.3
49
2.4Writing skills in different language domains: Linguistic dimensions of writing skills in adolescents
50
2.4.1Developing initial scriptual skills
50
2.4.2Writing skills in monolinguals
54
2.4.3Writing skills in bilinguals
57
2.4.4Developing biscriptual skills
61
2.4.4.1Transliteration
62
2.4.4.2Script as a predictor for biliteracy and biscriptuality
66
2.4.5Summing up 2.4
69
2.5The role of scriptual skills within writing models
70
2.5.1Writing models
70
2.5.2Transcription as a subprocess of writing
75
2.5.3Summing up 2.5
79
2.6Biscriptuality: Cyrillic and Latin scripts
80
2.6.1The recoding model of graphematics
81
2.6.2Cyrillic and Latin scripts
84
2.6.2.1Insights into grapheme-phoneme correspondences in Cyrillic and Latin scripts
86
2.6.2.2Some visual properties of Cyrillic and Latin graphemes
88
2.6.3Summing up 2.6
90
Chapter 3.Research questions and Methods
91
3.1Research questions and contributions to the field
91
3.2Study design
94
3.2.1Sample, sampling method and data collection
94
3.2.2The data
95
3.3Measuring biliteracy
97
3.3.1Writing tasks and procedure
98
3.3.2Methodological approach
100
3.3.3Data analysis
102
3.3.4Scoring system
104
3.3.5Holistic scoring scale: Task accomplishment
104
3.3.6Holistic scoring scale: Structure of narratives
106
3.3.7Analytic scores: Orthographic, lexical, and syntactical dimensions
106
3.3.7.1Scoring scales – spelling
106
3.3.7.2Scoring scales – vocabulary
108
3.3.7.3Scoring scales – syntax
108
3.3.8Statistical analysis conducted on scores
110
3.3.8.1Factors relating to biscriptuality
110
3.3.8.2Between group comparison
111
3.3.8.3The sum scores for the first and the second writing task in German and Russian
113
3.3.8.4Correlational analysis
113
3.3.9Listing of examples
114
Chapter 4.Results
115
4.1Results: Script choice in Russian
116
4.1.1Script choice among bilinguals: The classification into three groups
116
4.1.2Cyrillic group
117
4.1.2.1Functional variants of graphemes: Cursive vs. manuscript
118
4.1.2.2Intrascriptual mixing of Cyrillic graphemes
119
4.1.3Mix group
121
4.1.3.1Functional variants of graphemes: Cursive vs. manuscript
121
4.1.3.2Interscriptual and intrascriptual graphemes’ mixing
123
4.1.3.3Strategies for rendering Cyrillic graphemes by the Mix group
128
4.1.4Latin group
131
4.1.5Summing up 4.1
138
4.2Results: Determinants of biscriptuality
139
4.2.1Biscriptuality and students’ individual characteristics
140
4.2.1.1Students’ sociodemographic composition
141
4.2.1.2Students’ educational characteristics
143
4.2.2Biscriptuality and students’ familial characteristics
146
4.2.2.1Parents’ background
146
4.2.3Language practices and literacy resources
150
4.2.4Summing up 4.2
154
4.3Results: Biscriptuality and bilingual writing skills at the the orthographic level
157
4.3.1Types of spelling errors produced in German
158
4.3.2Incorrect capitalization of nouns in German and Russian
163
4.3.3The role of biscriptuality in students’ spelling in German
165
4.3.4Summing up 4.3
166
4.4Results: Biscriptuality and bilingual writing skills at the lexical level
168
4.4.1Number of words in German and Russian texts in both writing tasks
169
4.4.2Mean values of types of nouns, verbs and adjectives in German and Russian
171
4.4.3The role of biscriptuality for students’ writing at the lexical level
176
4.4.4Summing up 4.4
178
4.5Results: Biscriptuality and bilingual writing skills at the syntactical level
179
4.5.1Connectors in German and Russian
180
4.5.2Types of sentences written in German and Russian
183
4.5.3The role of biscriptuality in students’ writing at the syntactical level
185
4.5.4Summing up 4.5
188
4.6Results: Biscriptuality and bilingual writing skills at the textual level
189
4.6.1Expository text composition: Task accomplishment
190
4.6.2Narrative text composition: Structure of narratives
192
4.6.3The role of biscriptuality in students’ writing at the textual level
194
4.6.4Summing up 4.6
196
4.7Modeling bilingual biscriptual writing skills
198
4.7.1The relation of writing skills in German and Russian
199
4.7.2Overall writing skills in German and Russian
203
4.7.3The continua of biscriptual writing skills
208
Chapter 5.Conclusions
215
5.1Introducing conclusions
216
5.1.1Scriptual skills of (bi)scriptual bilinguals
216
5.2Limitations
231
5.3Implications
232
5.4Future research
234
5.5Final word
234