Cover not available
Part of
Portuguese-Spanish Interfaces: Diachrony, synchrony, and contact
Edited by Patrícia Amaral and Ana Maria Carvalho
[Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 1] 2014
► pp. 403–441

Portuguese remnants in the Afro-Hispanic diaspora

| University of California, Irvine

During the transatlantic slave trade, several pidgin Portuguese contact varieties originally spoken in sub-Saharan Africa came into contact with New World Spanish. In the Americas, the resulting Afro-Iberian diaspora involved thousands of speakers, and was far-flung, extending from Cuba to Bolivia and beyond. This paper studies rare and precious remnants of this Afro-Iberian contact in four very distinct New World vernaculars: the Yungas of Highland Bolivia, the Chota Valley of Ecuador, Palenquero creole of Colombia, and the ritual language Palo Monte of Cuba. Most prominent among these remnants is the invariant third-person pronoun ele ~ (n)elle ‘he, she, it; they’, shown here to be a “deep feature” derived from (Afro-)Port. ele ‘he’ and eles ‘they’.

Published online: 30 October 2014
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/ihll.1.21sch
References
de Almeida Mendes, A
(2008a) Les réseaux de la traite ibériques dans l’Atlantique nord: aux origines de la traite atlantique (1440–1640). Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 4, 739–768.Google Scholar
(2008b) The foundations of the system: A reassessment of the slave trade to the Spanish Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In D. Eltis & D. Richardson (Eds.), Extending the frontiers. Essays on the new transatlantic slave trade database (63–94). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Álvarez Nazario, M
(1974) El elemento afronegroide en el español de Puerto Rico. San Juan: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña. (Original work published in 1961).Google Scholar
Arlotto, A
(1972) Introduction to historical linguistics. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Arrázola, R
(1955) Historial de Cartagena (datos biográficos sobre los personajes históricos) (2d ed.). Cartagena: Tall. Gráf. de Casa Nacional del Periodista.Google Scholar
(1970) Palenque, primer pueblo libre de América: Historia de las sublevaciones de los esclavos de Cartagena. Cartagena: Ediciones Hernández.Google Scholar
Bakker, P
(2008) Pidgins versus creoles and pidgincreoles. In S. Kouwenberg & J.V. Singler (Eds.), The handbook of pidgin and creole studies (pp. 130–157). Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bartens, A
(1995) Die iberoromanisch-basierten Kreolsprachen. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Bentley, W.H
(1967) Dictionary and grammar of the Kongo language. London: Baptist Missionary Society. (Original work published 1887).Google Scholar
Berlin, Ira
(1996) From creole to African: Atlanic creoles and the origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America. The William and Mary Quarterly, 53(2), 251–288. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bickerton, D
(1973) The nature of a creole continuum. Language, 49, 640–669. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2002) Sobre los pretendidos portuguesismos de la lengua palenquera. In Moñino & Schwegler (Eds.), Palenque (Colombia): Oralidad, identidad y resistencia. Un enfoque interdisciplinario (pp. 35–42).Google Scholar
Boretzky, N
(1983)  Substrat oder natürliche Phonologie . Zur Lautentwicklung in Kreolsprachen. Essen: Universität Essen.Google Scholar
Borrego Plá, C
(1973) Palenques de negros en Cartagena de Indias a fines del siglo XVII. Prólogo del Dr. Don Luis Navarro García. Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos.Google Scholar
(1983) Cartagena de Indias en el siglo XVI. Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 288. Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla.Google Scholar
(1994) La conformación de una sociedad mestiza en la época de los Austrias, 1540–1700. In A. Meisel Roca (Ed.), Historia económica y social del Caribe colombiano (pp. 59–108). Bogota: Ediciones Uninorte.Google Scholar
Böttcher, N
(1995) Aufstieg und Fall eines atlantischen Handelsimperiums. Portugiesische Kaufleute und Sklavenhändler in Cartagena de Indias von 1580 bis zur Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
Brockington, L
(2006) Blacks, Indians, and Spaniards in the eastern Andes. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Bryant, S.K
(2005) Slavery and the context of ethnogenesis: African, Afro-Creoles, and the realities of bondage in the Kingdom of Quito, 1600–1800. Ph.D. Dissertation. Retrieved from [URL]
Bybee, J
(1985) Morphology. A study of the relation between meaning and form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Del Castillo, N
(1982) Esclavos negros en Cartagena y sus aportes léxicos. Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.Google Scholar
(1984) El léxico negro‑africano de San Basilio de Palenque. Thesaurus, 39, 80–169.Google Scholar
Castellanos, I
(1990) Grammatical structure, historical development, and religious usage of Afro-Cuban bozal speech. Folklore Forum, 23, 57–84.Google Scholar
Clements, J.C
(2009) Linguistic legacy of Spanish and Portuguese: Colonial expansion and language change. Cambridge: CUP. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Correa, A
(2012) La entonación del criollo palenquero y del kateyano de San Basilio de Palenque (Colombia). In Maglia & Schwegler (Eds.), Palenque (Colombia): oralidad, identidad y resistencia. Un enfoque interdisciplinario (pp. 31–56).Google Scholar
Cushner, N
(1982) Farm and factory: The Jesuits and the development of agrarian capitalism in colonial Quito, 1600–1767. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Eltis, D., & Richardson, D
(2011) New revelations about slaves and slave trade. CNN on-line, January 5, 2011. [URL]
Ferreira, R
(1997) “Fazendas” em troca de escravos: Circuitos de créditos nos sertões de Angola, 1830–1860. Revista Estudos Afro-Asiáticos, 32. Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar
(2003) Transforming Atlantic slaving: Trade, warfare and territorial control in Angola, 1650–1800. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California Los Angeles.
(2012) Cross-cultural exchange in the Atlantic world. Angola and Brazil during the era of the slave trade. Cambridge: CUP. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
de Friedemann, N.S
(1993) La saga del negro. Presencia africana en Colombia. Bogota: Instituto de Genética Humana, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana.Google Scholar
Fuentes Guerra, J., & Schwegler, A
(2005) Lengua y ritos del Palo Monte Mayombe: dioses cubanos y sus fuentes africanas. Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(2012) Prácticas rituales afrocubanas: Deidades Kimbisa (Palo Monte) y sus fuentes kikongo. In M. Luz Machado Caicedo (Ed.), La diáspora africana. Un legado de resistencia y emancipación (pp. 211–253). Amsterdam: National Institute for the Study of Dutch Slavery/ Ninsee — Cali: Fundación Universitaria Claretiana/ FUCLA y Universidad del Valle.Google Scholar
Fuentes Guerra, Jesús & Schwegler, Armin
(2014) “El origen kongo del Palo Monte: una aproximación etnolingüística”. Forthcoming in UniverSOS 11.Google Scholar
Gómez Zuluaga, P
(2010) Bodies of encounter: Health, illness and death in the early modern African-Spanish Caribbean. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Vanderbilt University.
Hagemeijer, T. & Alexandre, N
(2012). Os crioulos da Alta Guiné e do Golfo da Guiné: Uma comparação sintáctica. Papia , 22(2), 233–251.Google Scholar
Heywood, L
(Ed.) (2002) Central Africans and cultural transformations in the American diaspora. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Holm, J
(1988–1989) Pidgins and creoles. I. Theory and structure. II. Reference survey. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Horvath, J. & Wexler, P
(Eds.) (1997) Relexification in creole and non-creole languages. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Hualde, J.I. & Schwegler, A
(2008). Intonation in Palenquero. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 23(1), 1–31. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, B
(2009a) The Upper Guinea origins of Papiamentu. Linguistic and historical evidence. Diachronica, 26(3), 319–379. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2009b) The origins of Old Portuguese features in Papiamentu. In N. Faraclas, R. Severing, C. Weijer & L. Echteld (Eds.), Leeward voices: Fresh perspectives on Papiamentu and the literatures and cultures of the ABC Islands, Vol. 1 (11–38). Curaçao: FPI/UNA.Google Scholar
(2012) Origins of a creole. The history of Papiamentu and its African ties. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kouwenberg, S
(2000) Review of Lefebvre 1998. Revue québéquoise de linguistique, 28(2), 129–136. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Laman, K.E
(1964) Dictionnaire kikongo‑français (2 Vols.). Ridgewood, NJ: The Gregg Press. (Original work published in1936).Google Scholar
Lecomte, E. Padre
(1897)  Método prático da lingua mbundu falada no Districto de Benguela . In Boletim da Sociedade Geográfica, Serie 16, 3–124. Lisbon.Google Scholar
Lefebvre, C
(1998) Creole genesis and the acquisition of grammar: The case of Haitian creole. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar
Lipski, J.M
(1986) Sobre lingüística afroecuatoriana: El Valle del Chota. Anuario de Lingüística Hispánica, 2, 153–76.Google Scholar
(1988) Reduction of /s/ in Spanish: The Afro-Hispanic connection. In J.J. Staczek (Ed.), On Spanish, Portuguese, and Catalan linguistics (4–16). Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
(1993) On the non-creole basis for Afro-Caribbean Spanish. Research Paper Series no. 24, February 1993. Albuquerque, NM: The University of New Mexico.Google Scholar
(2000) Bozal Spanish: Restructuring or creolization? In I. Neumann-Holzschuh & E. Schneider (Eds.), Degrees of restructuring in creole languages (pp. 437–468). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2005) A history of Afro-Hispanic language. Five centuries, five continents. Cambridge: CUP. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2006) Lingüística afroecuatoriana: el Valle del Chota. Anuario de Lingüística Hispánica, 2, 153–176.Google Scholar
(2007) Where and how does bozal Spanish survive? In K. Potowski & R. Cameron (Eds.), Spanish in contact: Policy, social and linguistic inquiries (pp. 357–373). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2008) Afro-Bolivian Spanish. Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(2009) Afro Choteño speech: Towards the (re)creation of “Black Spanish”. Negritud, 2, 99–120.Google Scholar
(2010) Pitch polarity in Palenquero. In S. Colina, A. Olarrea, & A.M. Carvalho (Eds.), Romance linguistics 2009 (pp. 111–127). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011a) El “nuevo” Palenquero y el español afroboliviano: ¿es reversible la descriollización? In L. Ortiz-López (Ed.), Selected proceedings of the 13th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (pp. 1–16). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
(2011b) Decreolization as emergent grammar(s): Some Afro-Bolivian data. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 26(2), 276–340. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012a) The “new” Palenquero: revitalization and re-creolization. In R.J. File-Muriel & R. Orozco (Eds.), Varieties of Colombian Spanish (pp. 21–41). Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(2012b) Africanisms in Afro-Bolivian Spanish. In A. Bartens & P. Baker, Black through white. African words and calques which survived slavery in Creoles and transplanted European languages (pp. 73–80). London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Maglia, G. & Schwegler, A
(Eds.) (2012) Palenque (Colombia): Oralidad, identidad y resistencia. Un enfoque interdisciplinario. Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuervo & Universidad Javeriana.Google Scholar
McWhorter, J
(2000) The missing Spanish creoles: Recovering the birth of plantation contact languages. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Megenney, W.W
(2006) “Lengua” en la literaturea neoafronegroide: Cuba y Brazil. No place of publ.: Ediciones Deldragón.Google Scholar
Muysken, P
(1981) Halfway between Quechua and Spanish: The case for relexification. In A. Highfield & A. Valdman (Eds.), Historicity and variation in creole studies (pp. 52–78). Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.Google Scholar
Navarrete, M.C
(2003) Cimarrones y palenques en el siglo XVII. Cali: Editorial Facultad de Humanidades.Google Scholar
(2008a) San Basilio de Palenque: Memoria y tradición. Surgimiento y avatares de las gestas cimarronas en el Caribe colombiano. Cali: Programa Editorial Universidad del Valle.Google Scholar
(2008b) “Por haber todos concebido ser general la libertad para los de su color”. Construyendo el pasado del palenque de Matudere. Historia Caribe 13, 7–44. Barranquilla: Universidad del Atlántico.Google Scholar
(2011) El palenque de Limón (Cartagena de Indias, siglo XVII): El imaginario del poder y sus jerarquías. In Juan Manuel de la Serna (Ed.), Vicisitudes negro africanas en Iberoamérica: experiencias de investigación: Vol. 7 of Colección Historia de América Latina y el Caribe, (pp. 101–134). Mexico City, DF: Universidad Autónoma de México.Google Scholar
(2012) Palenques: cimarrones y castas en el Caribe colombiano — Sus relaciones sociales (siglo XVII). In Maglia & Schwegler (Eds.), Palenque (Colombia): oralidad, identidad y resistencia. Un enfoque interdisciplinario (pp. 257–284).Google Scholar
Newson, L.A
(2007) Cargazones de negros en Cartagena de Indias en el siglo XVII: Nutrición, salud y mortalidad. In A. Meisel & H. Calvo (Eds.), Cartagena de Indias en el siglo XVII (pp. 206–247). Bogota: Banco de la República.Google Scholar
(2012) Africans and Luso-Africans in the Portuguese slave trade on the Upper Guinea coast in the early seventeenth century. Journal of African History, 53(1), 1–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Newson, L.A. & Minchin, S
(2004). Slave mortality and African origins: A view from Cartagena, Colombia in the early seventeenth century. Slavery and Abolition, 25, 18–43.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2007) From capture to sale: The Portuguese slave trade to Spanish South America in the early seventeenth century. Leiden: Brill. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ortiz López, L.A
(1998) Huellas etno-sociolingüísticas bozales y afrocubanas. Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
Pérez Inofuentes, D.M
(2010) Las huellas lingüísticas de África en Bolivia: El habla afroyungueña. Unpublished M. A. Dissertation. Universität Zürich.Google Scholar
Perl, M
(1989) Zur Präsenz des kreolisierten Portugiesisch in der Karibik — Ein Beitrag zur Dialektologie des karibischen Spanisch. Beiträge zur Romanischen Philologie, 1, 131–148.Google Scholar
(1990) A reevaluation of the importance of early pidgin/creole Portuguese. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 5(1), 125–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2001) Nelle/cunelle — Afrospanische Pronomen in kubanischen Theatertexten im 19. Jahrhundert. In B. Staib (Ed.), Festschrift für Wolf Dietrich (pp. 347–355).Tübingen: Gunter Narr.Google Scholar
Perl, M. et al.
(1994)  Portugiesisch und Crioulo in Afrika . Geschichte - Grammatik - Lexik - Sprachentwicklung. Bochum: Brockmeyer.Google Scholar
Plag, I
(2009) Creoles as interlanguages: Word-formation. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 24(2), 339–362. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Portilla, M
(2008a) Pidgin afroportugués americano. Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana (RILI), 6, 163–185.Google Scholar
(2008b) Reconstrucción fonológica del pidgin afroportugués americano: Las consonantes. Revista de Filología y Lingüística de la Universidad Costa Rica, 34(1), 157–192.Google Scholar
(2009) Tono y acento en el pidgin afroportugués americano. Revista de Filología y Lingüística de la Universidad Costa Rica, 35(1), 139–177.Google Scholar
(2010) Pidgin afroportugués del Atlántico. Revista de Filología y Lingüística de la Universidad Costa Rica, 36(1), 251–278.Google Scholar
Rojas-Primus, C
(2009) Lengua ritual y sincretismo. Dinámicas de hibridez en el discurso mágico-religioso Palo Monte. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.Google Scholar
de Sandoval, A
(1987) De instauranda aethiopum salute. Un tratado sobre la esclavitud. (Introduction and transcription by Enriqueta Vila Vilar). Madrid: Alianza Editorial. (Original work published 1627).Google Scholar
Schwegler, A
(1990) Analyticity and syntheticity: A diachronic perspective with special reference to Romance languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1993a) Subject pronouns and person/number in Palenquero. In F. Byrne & J. Holm (Eds.), Atlantic meets Pacific: A global view of pidginization and creolization (pp. 145–161). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1993b) Rasgos (afro-) portugueses en el criollo del Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia). In C. Díaz Alayón (Ed.), Homenaje a José Pérez Vidal (667–696). La Laguna, Tenerife: Litografía A. Romero S. A.Google Scholar
(1996a) Chi ma nkongo: lengua y rito ancestrales en El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia) (2 Vols). Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(1996b). Lenguas criollas en Hispanoamérica y la contribución africana al español de América. Contactos y transferencias lingüísticas en Hispanoamérica. Special issue of Signo y Seña, 6, 295–346. Instituto de Lingüística, Universidad de Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
(1998) Palenquero. In M. Perl & A. Schwegler (Eds.), América negra: panorámica actual de los estudios lingüísticos sobre variedades criollas y afrohispanas (pp. 220–291). Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(1999) Monogenesis revisited: The Spanish perspective. In J. Rickford & S. Romaine (Eds.), Creole genesis, discourse and attitudes: Studies celebrating Charlene Sato (pp. 235–262). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2002a) On the (African) origins of Palenquero subject pronouns. Diachronica, 19(2), 273–332. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2002b) El vocabulario (ritual) bantú de Cuba. Parte I: Acerca de la matriz africana de la “lengua congo” en El Monte y Vocabulario Congo de Lydia Cabrera. / Parte II: Apéndices 1–2. In N. Díaz; R. Ludwig & S. Pfänder (Eds.), La Romania americana. Procesos lingüísticos en situaciones de contacto (pp. 97–194). Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(2006a) Bozal Spanish: Captivating new evidence from a contemporary source (Afro-Cuban “Palo Monte”). In J. Fuller & L.L. Thornburg (Eds.), Studies in contact linguistics: Essays in honor of Glenn G. Gilbert (pp. 71–101). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
(2006b) Bantu elements in Palenque (Colombia): Anthropological, archeological and linguistic evidence. In B. Haviser & K.C. MacDonald (Eds.), African re-genesis: Confronting social issues in the diaspora (pp. 204–222). London: University College London.Google Scholar
(2010) State of the discipline. Pidgin and creole studies: Their interface with Hispanic and Lusophone linguistics. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 3(2), 431–481.DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011a) Palenque(ro): the search for its African substrate. In C. Lefebvre (Ed.), Creoles, their substrates, and language typology (pp. 225–249). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011b) Palenque, Colombia: Multilingualism in an extraordinary social and historical context. In M. Díaz-Campos (Ed.), The handbook of Hispanic sociolinguistics (pp. 446–472). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011c) On the extraordinary revival of a creole: Palenquero (Colombia). In M. Haboud & N. Ostler (Eds.), Endangered languages — Voices and images. Proceedings of FEL XV, Quito Ecuador, 7–9 September 2011 (pp. 153–165). Bath, England: Foundation for Endangered Languages.Google Scholar
(2012) Sobre el origen africano de la lengua criolla de Palenque (Colombia). Much augmented Spanish version of “Palenque(ro): The search for its African substrate”. In G. Maglia & A. Schwegler (Eds.), Palenque (Colombia): oralidad, identidad y resistencia. Un enfoque interdisciplinario (pp. 107–179). Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.Google Scholar
(In press a) Palenquero. Introductory article. In S. Michaelis, P. Maurer, M. Haspelmath & M. Huber (Eds.), Atlas of pidgin and creole language structures (Vol. 2: The language surveys). Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
(In press b) Palenquero language structure subdatabase. In S. Michaelis, P. Maurer, M. Haspelmath & M. Huber (Eds.), Atlas of pidgin and creole language structures online (Ch. 28). Munich: Max Planck Digital Library. Available online at[URL]Google Scholar
Schwegler, A., & Green, K
(2007) Palenquero (creole Spanish). In J. Holm & P. Patrick (Eds.), comparative creole syntax: Parallel outlines of 18 creole grammars (pp. 273–306). London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar
Schwegler, A., & Morton, T
(2003) Vernacular Spanish in a microcosm: Kateyano in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia). Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana (RILI), 1, 97–159.Google Scholar
Schwegler, A., & Rojas-Primus, C
(2010) La “lengua” ritual del Palo Monte (Cuba): Estudio comparativo (Holguín & Cienfuegos). Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana (RILI), 15, 187–244.Google Scholar
Sessarego, S
(2011a) On the supposed origin for Yungueño Spanish: Linguistic and sociohistorical considerations. In A. Cortazar & R. Orozco (Eds.). Lenguaje, arte y revoluciones ayer y hoy. New approaches to Hispanic linguistic, literary, and cultural studies (pp. 212–237). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
(2011b) Introducción al idioma afroboliviano: Una conversación con el awicho Manuel Barra. La Paz, Bolivia: Plural Editores.Google Scholar
(In press a) Chota Valley Spanish. Frankfurt: Vervuert & Madrid: Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
(In press b) The Afro-Bolivian Spanish determiner phrase: A microparametric account. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Sessarego, S., & Gutiérrez-Rexach, J
(2010) Variation, evolution and the syntax of Afro-Bolivian Spanish gender agreement. Revista de Crioulos de Base Lexical Portuguesa e Espanhola, 2, 63–86.Google Scholar
Siegel, J
(2006) Links between SLA and creole studies. In C. Lefebvre, White, L., & C. Jourdan (Eds.), L2 acquisition and creole genesis: Dialogues (pp. 15–46). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
da Silva Maia, A
(1964) Diccionário complementar: Português — kimbundu — kikongo. Cucujães: Tipografia das Missões.Google Scholar
Tardieu, J.-P
(1984) Le destin des noirs aux Indes de Castille. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
(1997) Noirs et nouveaux maîtres dans les “vallées sanglantes” de l’Equateur 1778–1820. La Réunion: Université de la Réunion. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Thornton, J
(1981) Early Kongo-Portuguese relations: A new interpretation. History in Africa, 8, 183–204. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1995) Perspectives on African Christianity. In V. Lawrence Hyatt & R. Nettleford (Eds.), Race, discourse, and the origin of the Americas. A new world view (pp. 177–179). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
(1998) Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2d ed.). Cambridge: CUP. Transatlantic Slave Database. [URL]; DOI: DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Valdés Acosta, G
(2002) Los remanentes de las lenguas bantúes en Cuba. Havana: Fundación Fernando Ortiz.Google Scholar
Vidal Ortega, A
(2002)  Cartagena de Indias y la región histórica del Caribe, 1580–1640. Seville: Universidad de Sevilla, CSIC.Google Scholar
Vila Vilar, E
(1977) Hispanoamérica y el comercio de esclavos: los asientos portugueses. Sevilla: Escuela de estudios hispano-americanos.Google Scholar
(1979) Extranjeros en Cartagena (1593–1630). Jahrbuch für Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas, 16,147–184.Google Scholar
Wheat, D
(2009) The Afro-Portuguese maritime world and the foundations of Spanish Caribbean society, 1570–1640. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Vanderbilt University.
(2011) The first great waves: African provenance zones for the transatlantic slave trade to Cartagena de Indias, 1570–1640. Journal of African History, 52, 1–22. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zeuske, M
(2013) Handbuch Geschichte der Sklaverei. Eine Globalgeschichte von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Berlin: De Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 6 other publications

Bartens, Angela & Ilpo Kempas
2022. «A praia está perto»: Zum Gebrauch des Verbs estar in Ausdrücken der statischen Lage im Portugiesischen . Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 138:3 ► pp. 851 ff. DOI logo
Lipski, John M.
2016. Palenquero and Spanish. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 31:1 ► pp. 42 ff. DOI logo
Rao, Rajiv & Sandro Sessarego
2018. The intonation of Chota Valley Spanish: Contact-induced phenomena at the discourse-phonology interface. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 11:1 ► pp. 163 ff. DOI logo
Schwegler, Armin
2016. Combining population genetics (DNA) with historical linguistics. In Spanish Language and Sociolinguistic Analysis [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 8], ► pp. 33 ff. DOI logo
Sessarego, Sandro
2021. A socio-historical perspective on the origin and evolution of two Afro-Andean vernaculars. In Spanish Socio-Historical Linguistics [Advances in Historical Sociolinguistics, 12], ► pp. 164 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2015. Afro-Peruvian Spanish [Creole Language Library, 51], DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 13 september 2023. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.