Article published in:
Approaches to learning, testing, and researching L2 vocabulary
Edited by Stuart Webb
[ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 169:1] 2018
► pp. 142–168

The effect of out-of-class exposure to English language media on learners’ vocabulary knowledge

| KU Leuven
The aim of this study is to investigate (1) how often Flemish English-as-a-foreign language learners are exposed to English language media outside of the classroom, (2) whether current out-of-class exposure to English language media is related to learners’ vocabulary knowledge, and (3) whether length of instruction (three or six years), gender, and out-of-class exposure to English language media affect Flemish learners’ vocabulary. Data were collected with 79 English-as-a-foreign language learners. They were administered a frequency-based vocabulary test and a questionnaire. The findings of this study show that Flemish English-as-a-foreign language learners are frequently exposed to English language media. The results also indicate a positive relationship between learners’ vocabulary knowledge and exposure to non-subtitled TV programs and movies, the Internet, and written print (books, magazines). Finally, both length of instruction and current out-of-class exposure to English language media had an effect on learners’ vocabulary knowledge, but out-of-class exposure had a larger effect than length of instruction.
Keywords: out-of-class exposure, vocabulary, English, viewing
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Background
    • 2.1Reading
    • 2.2TV viewing
    • 2.3Playing computer games, the Internet, and social media
  • 3.Aim
  • 4.Method
    • 4.1Participants
    • 4.2Test instruments
      • 4.2.1Vocabulary test
      • 4.2.2Questionnaire
    • 4.3Data analysis
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1Vocabulary test
    • 5.2Research question 1
    • 5.3Research question 2
    • 5.4Research question 3
  • 6.Discussion
    • 6.1Learners’ exposure to English language input outside of the classroom
    • 6.2The relationship between out-of-class exposure and learners’ vocabulary knowledge
    • 6.3Factors affecting learners’ vocabulary knowledge
    • 6.4Limitations and suggestions for future research
  • 7.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 16 April 2018
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.00010.pet
References
Briggs, J. G.
(2015) Out-of-class language contact and vocabulary gain in a study abroad context. System, 531, 129–140. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R., Waring, R., & Donkaewbua, S.
(2008) Incidental vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(2), 136–163.Google Scholar
Cobb, T.
(2000) One size fits all? Francophone learners and English vocabulary tests. The Canadian Modern Language Review / La Revue Canadienne Des Langues Vivantes, 57(2), 295–324. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J.
(1992) A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Coxhead, A., & Bytheway, J.
(2015) Learning vocabulary using two massive online resources: You will not blink. In D. Nunan & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Language learning beyond the classroom (pp. 65–74). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Davies, M.
(2008) Corpus of Contemporary American English. Retrieved from http://​corpus​.byu​.edu​/coca/
European Commission
(2012) First European Survey on Language Competences.Google Scholar
González Fernández, B., & Schmitt, N.
(2015) How much collocation knowledge do L2 learners have? The effects of frequency and amount of exposure. ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 166(1), 94–126. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Horst, M.
(2005) Learning L2 vocabulary through extensive reading: A measurement study. The Canadian Modern Language Review / La Revue Canadienne Des Langues Vivantes, 61(3), 355–382. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Housen, A. Janssens, & Pierrard, M.
(2001) Frans en Engels als vreemde talen in Vlaamse scholen. Brussel: VUB Press.Google Scholar
Kuppens, A. H.
(2010) Incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure. Learning, Media and Technology, 35(1), 65–85. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Larson-Hall, J.
(2010) A guide to doing statistics in second language research using SPSS. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & Levitzky-Aviad, T.
(2018) Loanword proportion in vocabulary size tests: Does it make a difference? ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 168(2): 94–113.Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & McLean, S.
(2016) Loanwords and vocabulary size test scores: A case of different estimates for different L1 learners. Language Assessment Quarterly, 13(3), 202–217. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B., & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, G.
(2010) Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners’ vocabulary size and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 15–30.Google Scholar
Lin, P. M. S. & Siyanova-Chanturia, A.
(2015) Internet television for L2 vocabulary learning. In D. Nunan & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Language learning beyond the classroom (pp.149–158). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lindgren, E., & Muñoz, C.
(2013) The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism, 10(1), 105–129. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, T., & Roever, C.
(2006) Psychometric approaches to fairness: Bias and DIF. Language Learning, 56(S2), 81–128. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C.
(2008) Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics, 29(4), 578–596. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2011) Input and long-term effects of starting age in foreign language learning. IRAL – International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 49(2), 113–133. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nation, P.
(2006) How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 59–82. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2015) Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 27(1), 136–145.Google Scholar
Noreillie, A. -S., Kestemont, B., Heylen, K., Desmet, P., & Peters, E.
(2018) Vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension at an intermediate level in English and French as foreign languages: an approximate replication study of Stæhr (2009) ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 168(2): 213–232.Google Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Schmitt, N.
(2010) Incidental vocabulary acquisition from an authentic novel: Do Things Fall Apart? Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 31–55.Google Scholar
Peters, E. & Webb, S.
(2018) Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. Advance online publication. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., Velghe, T., Van Rompaey, T.
(2015, May). A post-entry English and French vocabulary size for Flemish learners. Paper presented at EALTA. Copenhagen, Denmark.
Pigada, M., & Schmitt, N.
(2006) Vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading: A case study. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 1–28.Google Scholar
Plonsky, L.
(2015) Statistical power, p values, descriptive statistics, and effect sizes. A “back-to-basics” approach to advancing quantitative methods in L2 research. In L. Plonsky (Ed.), Advancing quantitative methods in second language research (pp. 23–45). London: Routledge. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L.
(2017) Multiple regression as a flexible alternative to anova in L2 research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1–14. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rodgers, M. P. H.
(2013) English language learning through viewing television: An investigation of comprehension, incidental vocabulary acquisition, lexical coverage, attitudes, and captions (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand.Google Scholar
Rodgers, M. P. H., & Webb, S.
(2011) Narrow viewing: The vocabulary in related television programs. TESOL Quarterly, 45(4), 689–717. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. & Redwood, S.
(2011) Learner knowledge of phrasal verbs. A corpus-informed study. In F. Meunier, S. De Cock, G. Gilquin, & M. Paquot (Eds.), A taste for corpora: In honour of Sylviane Granger (pp. 173–209). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sockett, G. & Kusyk, M.
(2015) Online informal learning of English: Frequency effects in the uptake of chunks of language from participation in web-based activities. In T. Cadierno & S. W. Eskildsen (Eds.), Usage-based perspectives on second language learning (pp. 153–177). Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Stæhr, L. S.
(2009) Vocabulary knowledge and advanced listening comprehension in English as a foreign language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(4), 577–607. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sundqvist, P., & Sylvén, L. K.
(2014) Language-related computer use: Focus on young L2 English learners in Sweden. ReCALL, 26(1), 3–20. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sundqvist, P., & Wikström, P.
(2015) Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes. System, 511, 65–76. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sylvén, L. K., & Sundqvist, P.
(2012) Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL, 24(3), 302–321. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Zeeland, H., & Schmitt, N.
(2013) Lexical coverage in L1 and L2 listening comprehension: The same or different from reading comprehension? Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 457–479. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Verspoor, M. H., de Bot, K., & van Rein, E.
(2011) English as a foreign language. The role of out-of-school language input. In A. De Houwer & A. Wilton (Eds.), English in Europe today. Sociocultural and educational perspectives (pp. 147–166). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S.
(2015) Extensive viewing: language learning through watching television. In D. Nunan & J. C. Richards (Eds.) Language learning beyond the classroom (pp. 159–168). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. -S.
(2015a) Second language vocabulary learning through extensive reading with audio support: How do frequency and distribution of occurrence affect learning? Language Teaching Research, 19(6), 667–686. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. S.
(2015b) How does prior word knowledge affect vocabulary learning progress in an extensive reading program? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(4), 651–675. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. P. H.
(2009a) Vocabulary demands of television programs. Language Learning, 59(2), 335–366. http://​onlinelibrary​.wiley​.com​/doi​/10​.1111​/j​.1467​-9922​.2009​.00509​.x​/full
(2009b) The lexical coverage of movies. Applied Linguistics, 30(3), 407–427. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, X.
(2013) The “I don’t Know” option in the Vocabulary Size Test. TESOL Quarterly, 47(4), 790–811. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 46 other publications

No author info given
2020. INTRODUCTION TO THE SPECIAL ISSUE. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:3 ► pp. 489 ff. Crossref logo
Ahrabi Fakhr, Masoud, Davood Borzabadi Farahani & Ali Akbar Khomeijani Farahani
2021. Incidental Vocabulary Learning and Retention from Audiovisual Input and Factors Affecting Them. English Teaching & Learning 45:2 ► pp. 167 ff. Crossref logo
Busby, Nicole Louise
2021. Words from where?. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 172:1 ► pp. 58 ff. Crossref logo
Dang, Thi Ngoc Yen
2020. The Potential for Learning Specialized Vocabulary of University Lectures and Seminars Through Watching Discipline‐Related TV Programs: Insights From Medical Corpora. TESOL Quarterly 54:2 ► pp. 436 ff. Crossref logo
De Wilde, Vanessa, Marc Brysbaert & June Eyckmans
2020. Learning English through out-of-school exposure. Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important?. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 23:1 ► pp. 171 ff. Crossref logo
De Wilde, Vanessa, Marc Brysbaert & June Eyckmans
2021. Young learners’ L2 English after the onset of instruction: longitudinal development of L2 proficiency and the role of individual differences. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 24:3 ► pp. 439 ff. Crossref logo
De Wilde, Vanessa, Marc Brysbaert & June Eyckmans
2022. FORMAL VERSUS INFORMAL L2 LEARNING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 44:1 ► pp. 87 ff. Crossref logo
Feddermann, Maja, Jürgen Baumert & Jens Möller
2021. Just selection and preparation? CLIL effects on second language learning. Learning and Instruction ► pp. 101578 ff. Crossref logo
Feng, Yanxue & Stuart Webb
2020. LEARNING VOCABULARY THROUGH READING, LISTENING, AND VIEWING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:3 ► pp. 499 ff. Crossref logo
Fievez, Isabeau, Maribel Montero Perez, Frederik Cornillie & Piet Desmet
2021. Promoting incidental vocabulary learning through watching a French Netflix series with glossed captions. Computer Assisted Language Learning ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
González Ortega, Bianca & Iban Mañas Navarrete
2020. Efectos de los subtítulos intralingüísticos y los subtítulos bilingües aumentados sobre el aprendizaje incidental de vocabulario en español como lengua extranjera. RILEX. Revista sobre investigaciones léxicas 3:2 ► pp. 125 ff. Crossref logo
Gökcan, Mustafa & Derya Çobanoğlu Aktan
2019. Development of Exposure to English Scale and Investigation of Exposure Effect to Achievement. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education ► pp. 109 ff. Crossref logo
Jurkovič, Violeta
2020.  In Examining the Roles of Teachers and Students in Mastering New Technologies [Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design, ], ► pp. 204 ff. Crossref logo
Leona, Nihayra L., Margreet J.H. van Koert, Maurits W. van der Molen, Judith E. Rispens, Jurgen Tijms & Patrick Snellings
2021. Explaining individual differences in young English language learners’ vocabulary knowledge: The role of Extramural English Exposure and motivation. System 96 ► pp. 102402 ff. Crossref logo
Liu, Chen-Yu
2022. Are TED Talks Potential Materials for Learning Specialized Vocabulary? A Case of Medical Vocabulary. English Teaching & Learning Crossref logo
Lyu, Boning & Chun Lai
2020. Interacting with native speakers of Chinese through online learning communities: A case study with East Asian learners. Global Chinese 6:2 ► pp. 215 ff. Crossref logo
Majuddin, Elvenna, Anna Siyanova-Chanturia & Frank Boers
2021. INCIDENTAL ACQUISITION OF MULTIWORD EXPRESSIONS THROUGH AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:5 ► pp. 985 ff. Crossref logo
Masrai, Ahmed
2020. Can L2 Phonological Vocabulary Knowledge and Listening Comprehension be Developed Through Extensive Movie Viewing? the Case of Arab EFL Learners. International Journal of Listening 34:1 ► pp. 54 ff. Crossref logo
Mettewie, Laurence & Luk Van Mensel
2020. Understanding foreign language education and bilingual education in Belgium: a (surreal) piece of cake. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Montero Perez, Maribel
2019. Pre-learning vocabulary before viewing captioned video: an eye-tracking study. The Language Learning Journal 47:4 ► pp. 460 ff. Crossref logo
Montero Perez, Maribel
2020. INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING THROUGH VIEWING VIDEO. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:4 ► pp. 749 ff. Crossref logo
Montero Perez, Maribel
2020. MULTIMODAL INPUT IN SLA RESEARCH. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:3 ► pp. 653 ff. Crossref logo
Montero Perez, Maribel
2022. Second or foreign language learning through watching audio-visual input and the role of on-screen text. Language Teaching 55:2 ► pp. 163 ff. Crossref logo
Muñoz, Carmen
2020. Boys like games and girls like movies. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics 33:1 ► pp. 171 ff. Crossref logo
Niitemaa, Marja-Leena
2020. Informal acquisition of L2 English vocabulary. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy 15:2 ► pp. 86 ff. Crossref logo
Pellicer-Sánchez, Ana
2019. Examining second language vocabulary growth: Replications of Schmitt (1998) and Webb & Chang (2012). Language Teaching 52:4 ► pp. 512 ff. Crossref logo
Perez, Maribel Montero & Michael P. H. Rodgers
2019. Video and language learning. The Language Learning Journal 47:4 ► pp. 403 ff. Crossref logo
Peters, Elke
2019. The Effect of Imagery and On‐Screen Text on Foreign Language Vocabulary Learning From Audiovisual Input. TESOL Quarterly 53:4 ► pp. 1008 ff. Crossref logo
Peters, Elke, Ann‐Sophie Noreillie, Kris Heylen, Bram Bulté & Piet Desmet
2019. The Impact of Instruction and Out‐of‐School Exposure to Foreign Language Input on Learners’ Vocabulary Knowledge in Two Languages. Language Learning 69:3 ► pp. 747 ff. Crossref logo
Peters, Elke, Tom Velghe & Tinne Van Rompaey
2019. The VocabLab tests. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 170:1 ► pp. 53 ff. Crossref logo
Peters, Elke & Stuart Webb
2018. INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY ACQUISITION THROUGH VIEWING L2 TELEVISION AND FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 40:3 ► pp. 551 ff. Crossref logo
Puimège, Eva & Elke Peters
2019. Learners’ English Vocabulary Knowledge Prior to Formal Instruction: The Role of Learner‐Related and Word‐Related Variables. Language Learning 69:4 ► pp. 943 ff. Crossref logo
Puimège, Eva & Elke Peters
2019. Learning L2 vocabulary from audiovisual input: an exploratory study into incidental learning of single words and formulaic sequences. The Language Learning Journal 47:4 ► pp. 424 ff. Crossref logo
Puimège, Eva & Elke Peters
2020. LEARNING FORMULAIC SEQUENCES THROUGH VIEWING L2 TELEVISION AND FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:3 ► pp. 525 ff. Crossref logo
Pujadas, Geòrgia & Carmen Muñoz
2019. Extensive viewing of captioned and subtitled TV series: a study of L2 vocabulary learning by adolescents. The Language Learning Journal 47:4 ► pp. 479 ff. Crossref logo
Rodgers, Michael P. H. & Stuart Webb
2020. Incidental vocabulary learning through viewing television. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 171:2 ► pp. 191 ff. Crossref logo
Schmitt, Norbert & Diane Schmitt
2020.  In Vocabulary in Language Teaching, Crossref logo
Sierocka, Halina, Violeta Jurković & Mirna Varga
2019. The Role of Smartphones for Online Language Use in the Context of Polish and Croatian Students of Different Disciplines. Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric 58:1 ► pp. 173 ff. Crossref logo
Sigurjónsdóttir, Sigríður & Iris Nowenstein
2021. Language acquisition in the digital age: L2 English input effects on children’s L1 Icelandic. Second Language Research 37:4 ► pp. 697 ff. Crossref logo
Tommerdahl, Jodi M., Chrystal Sapphire Dragonflame & Amanda A. Olsen
2022. A systematic review examining the efficacy of commercially available foreign language learning mobile apps. Computer Assisted Language Learning ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Varga, Mirna, Violeta Jurkovič & Halina Sierocka
2018. English communicative competence and predominant language for online use through smartphones in Croatia as compared to Slovenia. ExELL 6:2 ► pp. 130 ff. Crossref logo
Vu, Duy Van & Elke Peters
2021. Vocabulary in English Language Learning, Teaching, and Testing in Vietnam: A Review. Education Sciences 11:9 ► pp. 563 ff. Crossref logo
Warnby, Marcus
2022. Receptive academic vocabulary knowledge and extramural English involvement – is there a correlation?. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 173:1 ► pp. 120 ff. Crossref logo
Webb, Stuart & Anna C.-S. Chang
2022. HOW DOES MODE OF INPUT AFFECT THE INCIDENTAL LEARNING OF COLLOCATIONS?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 44:1 ► pp. 35 ff. Crossref logo
Zenner, Eline, Laura Rosseel & Dirk Speelman
2021. Starman or Sterrenman: An acquisitional perspective on the social meaning of English in Flanders. International Journal of Bilingualism 25:3 ► pp. 568 ff. Crossref logo
Zhang, Ruofei, Di Zou, Gary Cheng, Haoran Xie, Fu Lee Wang, Oliver Tat Sheung Au & Zhaoqing Pan
2021. Target languages, types of activities, engagement, and effectiveness of extramural language learning. PLOS ONE 16:6 ► pp. e0253431 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 15 april 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.