Cover not available
Article published In:
ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 168:2 (2017) ► pp.248–277

Incidental acquisition of collocations in L2

Effects of adjacency and prior vocabulary knowledge

| Vilnius University

As collocations are very numerous, at least a part of them has to be learned incidentally when acquiring a second language. There is now an increasing body of evidence showing that incidental learning of collocations seems to be possible. The present study sets out to investigate whether collocations can be learned incidentally if encountered in their nonadjacent form (with words intervening between collocates). It also looks at the role of prior vocabulary knowledge in incidental acquisition of adjacent and nonadjacent collocations. The results show that nonadjacent collocations can be learned equally well as adjacent ones, at least to the recognition level of knowledge. Also, larger prior vocabulary knowledge seems to lead to better chances of learning both adjacent and nonadjacent collocations incidentally.

Keywords: collocations, incidental acquisition, nonadjacent collocations, adjacent collocations, vocabulary knowledge
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Background
    • 2.1Defining collocations
    • 2.2Incidental acquisition of collocations in L2
    • 2.3Potential issues with learning nonadjacent items
    • 2.4The present study
  • 3.Method
    • 3.1Reading materials
    • 3.2Measures
    • 3.3Procedure
    • 3.4Participants
  • 4.Results
    • 4.1RQ1. To what extent can transparent collocations in an L2 be learned incidentally from reading academic texts?
      • 4.1.1Recognition level of knowledge
      • 4.1.2Recall level of knowledge
    • 4.2RQ2. Is there any difference between incidental learning of adjacent and nonadjacent verb-noun collocations in an L2?
    • 4.3RQ3. Does previous vocabulary knowledge have an effect on incidental collocation learning in an L2?
  • 5.Discussion
    • 5.1Learning transparent collocations incidentally
    • 5.2Learning nonadjacent collocations incidentally
    • 5.3The role of prior vocabulary knowledge
    • 5.4Limitations
    • 5.5Implications
  • 6.Conclusions
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 30 December 2017
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.17005.vil
References
Alderson, J. C.
(2005) Diagnosing foreign language proficiency: The interface between learning and assessment. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Bahns, J., & Eldaw, M.
(1993) Should we teach EFL students collocations? System, 21(1), 101–114. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Barfield, A.
(2012) Lexical collocations. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopaedia of applied linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. Retrieved from [URL] DOI logo
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S.
(2014) lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using Eigen and S4_. R package (Version 1.1-7). Retrieved from [URL]
Baxter, J.
(2011) 23. Gender. In S. James (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 331–343). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E.
(1999) Longman grammar of spoken and written English. Harlow, UK: Longman.Google Scholar
Boers, F., Demecheleer, M., Coxhead, A., & Webb, S.
(2014) Gauging the effects of exercises on verb – noun collocations. Language Teaching Research, 18(1), 54–74. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brown, J.
(2014) Knowledge of collocations. In J. Milton & T. Fitzpatrick (Eds.), Dimensions of vocabulary knowledge (pp. 123–139). Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cobb, T.
Range for texts v.3 [computer program]. Accessed at [URL]> (16 October 2015).
Davies, M.
(2008) The corpus of contemporary American English: 450 million words, 1990-present. Retrieved from [URL]
Day, R. R., Omura, C., & Hiramatsu, M.
(1991) Incidental EFL vocabulary learning and reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7(2), 541–551.Google Scholar
Durrant, P.
(2009) Investigating the viability of a collocation list for students of English for academic purposes. English for Specific Purposes, 28(3), 157–169. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Field, A.
(2009) Discovering Statistics Using SPSS (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Foster, P.
(2001) Rules and routines: A consideration of their role in the taskbased language production of native and non-native speakers. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching Pedagogic Tasks: Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing (pp. 75–93). Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Gómez, R. L.
(2002) Variability and detection of invariant structure. Psychological Science, 13(5), 431–436. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gómez, R., & Maye, J.
(2005) The developmental trajectory of nonadjacent dependency learning. Infancy, 7(2), 183–206. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gyllstad, H., Vilkaitė, L., & Schmitt, N.
(2015) Assessing vocabulary size through multiple-choice formats: Issues with guessing and sampling rates. ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 166(2), 278–306. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Heugten, M. van, & Shi, R.
(2010) Infants’ sensitivity to nonadjacent dependencies across phonological phrase boundaries. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 128(5), EL223–EL228. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Horst, M.
(2005) Learning L2 vocabulary through extensive reading: A measurement study. Canadian Modern Language Review, 61(3), 355–382. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P.
(1998) Beyond a Clockwork Orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 11(2), 207–223.Google Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H.
(2003) Incidental and intentional learning. In K. J. Doughty & M. H. Long, In The handbook of second language acquisition. (pp. 349–381). Malden, MA: Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
IBM Corp.
(2013) BM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 22.0). Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.Google Scholar
Kilgarriff, A.
(n.d.). BNC database and word frequency lists. Retrieved from [URL]> (17 September 2014).
Kremmel, B., & Schmitt, N.
(2016) Interpreting vocabulary test scores: What do various item formats tell us about learners’ ability to employ words? Language Assessment Quarterly, 13(4), 377–392. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Bojesen Christensen, B.
(2015) lmerTest: Tests in Linear mixed effects models (Version 2.0–29). Retrieved from [URL]
Kweon, S. -O., & Kim, H. -R.
(2008) Beyond raw frequency: Incidental vocabulary acquisition in extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(2), 191–215.Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & Goldstein, Z.
(2004) Testing vocabulary knowledge: Size, strength, and computer adaptiveness. Language Learning, 54(3), 399–436. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B., & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, G. C.
(2010) Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners’ vocabulary size and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 15–30.Google Scholar
McCarthy, M.
(1990) Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McIntosh, C., Francis, B., & Poole, R.
(Eds.) (2009) Oxford collocations dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Meunier, F.
(2012) Formulaic language and language teaching. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 321, 111–129. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Michael, A.
(2009) Slang: The people’s poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Millar, N.
(2011) The processing of malformed formulaic language. Applied Linguistics, 32(2), 129–148. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Milton, J.
(2013) Measuring the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to proficiency in the four skills. In C. Bardel, C. Lindqvist, & B. Laufer (Eds.), L2 vocabulary acquisition, knowledge and use (pp. 57–78). European Second Language Association.Google Scholar
Montero Perez, M., Peters, E., & Desmet, P.
(2015) Enhancing vocabulary learning through captioned video: An eye-tracking study. The Modern Language Journal, 99(2), 308–328. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Moon, R.
(1998) Fixed expressions and idioms in English: A corpus-based approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Nagy, W. E., Herman, P. A., Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D.
(1984) Technical Report No. 319: Learning words from context. Illinois: University of Illinois.Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P.
(2001) Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Newport, E. L., & Aslin, R. N.
(2004) Learning at a distance I. Statistical learning of nonadjacent dependencies. Cognitive Psychology, 48(2), 127–162. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paquot, M., & Granger, S.
(2012) Formulaic language in learner corpora. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 321, 130–149. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A.
(2015) Learning L2 collocations incidentally from reading. Language Teaching Research. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2016) Incidental vocabulary acquisition from and while reading: An eye-tracking study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(1), 97–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Schmitt, N.
(2010) Incidental vocabulary acquisition from an authentic novel: Do things fall apart? Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 31–55.Google Scholar
Peters, E.
(2014) The effects of repetition and time of post-test administration on EFL learners’ form recall of single words and collocations. Language Teaching Research, 18(1), 75–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2016) The learning burden of collocations: The role of interlexical and intralexical factors. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 113–138. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pigada, M., & Schmitt, N.
(2006) Vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading: A case study. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 1–28.Google Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L.
(2014) How big is ‘big’? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64(4), 878–912. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
R Core Team
(2013) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from [URL]
Santelmann, L. M., & Jusczyk, P. W.
(1998) Sensitivity to discontinuous dependencies in language learners: evidence for limitations in processing space. Cognition, 69(2), 105–134. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N.
(2008) Review article: Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 329–363. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C.
(2001) Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 18(1), 55–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, J.
(1991) Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, J.
(2012) A multiple-choice test of active vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary Learning and Instruction, 53–59. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Szudarski, P.
(2012) Effects of meaning- and form-focused instruction on the acquisition of verb-noun collocations in L2 English. Journal of Second Language Teaching & Research, 1(2), 3–37.Google Scholar
van Zeeland, H., & Schmitt, N.
(2013) Incidental vocabulary acquisition through L2 listening: A dimensions approach. System, 41(3), 609–624. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vilkaitė, L.
(2016) Are nonadjacent collocations processed faster? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42(10), 1632–1642. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vilkaitė, L. & N. Schmitt
(2017) Reading collocations in an L2: Do collocation processing benefits extend to non-adjacent collocations? Applied Linguistics. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vries, M. H. de, Petersson, K. M., Geukes, S., Zwitserlood, P., & Christiansen, M. H.
(2012) Processing multiple nonadjacent dependencies: Evidence from sequence learning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 367(1598), 2065–2076. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vuong, L. C., Meyer, A. S., & Christiansen, M. H.
(2016) Concurrent statistical learning of adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies. Language Learning, 66(1), 8–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vuong, L., Meyer, A. S., & Christiansen, M. H.
(2011) Simultaneous online tracking of adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies in statistical learning. In C. Carlson, C. Hölscher, & T. Shipley (Eds.), Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. -S.
(2015) How does prior vocabulary knowledge affect vocabulary learning in an extensive reading program? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(1), 651–675. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Webb, S., Newton, J., & Chang, A.
(2013) Incidental learning of collocation. Language Learning, 63(1), 91–120. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wolter, B., & Gyllstad, H.
(2011) Collocational links in the L2 mental lexicon and the influence of L1 intralexical knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 32(4), 430–449. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013) Frequency of input and L2 collocational processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(3), 451–482. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wray, A.
(2002) Formulaic language and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N.
(2001) Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4), 541–572. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zhang, X.
(2013) The I don’t know option in the Vocabulary Size Test. TESOL Quarterly, 47(4), 790–811. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 4 other publications

Alotaibi, Sara, Ana Pellicer-Sánchez & Kathy Conklin
2022. The effect of input modes and number of exposures on the learning of L2 binomials. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 173:1 ► pp. 58 ff. DOI logo
Van Vu, Duy & Elke Peters
2021. INCIDENTAL LEARNING OF COLLOCATIONS FROM MEANINGFUL INPUT. Studies in Second Language Acquisition ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Vu, Duy Van & Elke Peters
2022. A Longitudinal Study on the Effect of Mode of Reading on Incidental Collocation Learning and Predictors of Learning Gains. TESOL Quarterly DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2021. References. In Foundations of Familiar Language, ► pp. 386 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 15 april 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.