Article published in:
ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 170:1 (2019) ► pp. 111–135

Explicitness of deductive instruction and L2 development

A study on the Spanish imperfect subjunctive

| Fairfield University
This study investigated the effects that different types of instruction varying in explicitness had on 88 intermediate-level Spanish learners’ development of the imperfect subjunctive on a reading task. Participants were randomly assigned to one of 3 experimental conditions that differed in their degree of instructional explicitness (+/− deductive). One condition (+Deductive) received a detailed grammar explanation prior to task; a second condition (−Deductive) received a hint about a new target form present in the reading task, and the third condition (Baseline) was not presented with any grammar information or hint. The study consisted of 3 sessions, following a pre/post/delayed computerized test design with 2 weeks between sessions. Results showed that the −Deductive condition performed as well as the +Deductive condition immediately and 2 weeks after treatment for both Interpretation and Controlled production tests.
Keywords: adult second language acquisition, instructional conditions, L2 development, Spanish subjunctive, explicitness
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Background
    • Explicitness of deductive instruction and L2 learning
  • Method
    • Participants
    • Target structure
    • Materials
      • Instructional conditions
      • Experimental task
      • Learning assessment instruments
      • Comprehension test
    • Design
    • Procedure
    • Coding
  • Results
    • Preliminary analyses
    • Controlling for reactivity
  • Research Question 1
  • Research Question 2
  • Discussion
    • Research Question 1
    • Research Question 2
  • Limitations
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 05 April 2019
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.17027.adr
References
Adrada-Rafael
(2017) Processing the Spanish imperfect subjunctive: Depth of processing under different instructional conditions. Applied Psycholinguistics, 38(2), 477–508. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Alanen, R.
(1995) Input enhancement and rule presentation in second language acquisition. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 259–302). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii at Manoa.Google Scholar
Andringa, S., De Glopper, K., & Hacquebord, H.
(2011) Effect of explicit and implicit instruction on free written response task performance. Language Learning, 61(3), 868–903. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Benati, A.
(2004) The effects of structured input activities and explicit information on the acquisition of the Italian future tense. In B. VanPatten (Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research, and commentary, 207–225. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Cerezo, L., Caras, A., & Leow, R.
(2016) The effectiveness of guided induction versus deductive instruction on the development of complex Spanish gustar structures: An analysis of learning outcomes and processes. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 381, 265–291. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Collentine, J.
(1995) The development of complex syntax and mood selection abilities by intermediate-level learners of Spanish. Hispania, 781, 122–135. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cox, J.
(2017) Explicit instruction, bilingualism, and the older adult learner. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 391, 29–58. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cox, J. G., & Sanz, C.
(2015) Deconstructing PI for the ages: Explicit instruction v. practice in young and older bilinguals. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics, 531, 225–248. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
De Graaff, R., & Housen, A.
(2009) Investigating the effects and effectiveness of L2 instruction. In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of language teaching (pp. 726–755). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M.
(1995) Learning second language grammar rules. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17(03), 379–410. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dominicis, M. C., & Reynolds, J. J.
(2011) Repase y escriba: Curso avanzado de gramática y composición (6th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Doughty, C. J.
(1991) Second language instruction does make a difference: Evidence from an empirical study of SL relativization. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 131, 431–469. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R.
(1991) Grammar teaching practice or consciousness-raising? In R. Ellis (Ed.), Second language acquisition and second language pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Erlam, R.
(2003) The effects of deductive and inductive instruction on the acquisition of direct object pronouns in French as a second language. Modern Language Journal 871, 242–60. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2005) Language aptitude and its relationship to instructional effectiveness in second language acquisition. Language Teaching Research, 9(2), 147–171. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Farley, A.
(2004) The relative effects of processing instruction and meaning-based output instruction. In B. VanPatten (Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research, and commentary (pp. 143–168). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Fernández, C.
(2008) Reexamining the role of explicit information in processing instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,301, 277–305. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Goo, J., Granena, G., Yilmaz, Y., & Novella, M.
(2015) Implicit and explicit instruction in L2 learning. In P. Rebuschat (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 443–482). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Greenslade, T. A., Bouden, L., & Sanz, C.
(1999) Attending to form and content in processing L2 reading texts. Spanish Applied Linguistics, 31, 65–90.Google Scholar
Herron, C., & Tomasello, M.
(1992) Acquiring grammatical structures by guided induction. French Review, 651, 708–718.Google Scholar
Hsieh, C. H., Moreno, N., & Leow, R. P.
(2016) Awareness, type of medium, and L2 development: Revisiting Hsieh (2008). In R. Leow, L. Cerezo, & M. Baralt (Eds.), A psycholinguistic approach to technology and language learning (pp. 131–150). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.Google Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H.
(2005) Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second-language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 271, 129–140. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Larson-Hall, J.
(2010) A guide to doing statistics in second language research using SPSS. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Leow, R. P., Hsieh, H. C., & Moreno, N.
(2008) Attention to form and meaning revisited. Language Learning, 58(3), 665–695. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Leow, R. P.
(2012) Explicit and implicit learning in the L2 classroom: What does the research suggest? The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and Tefl, 21, 117–130.Google Scholar
Leow, R. P., & Mercer, J. D.
(2015) Depth of processing in L2 learning: Theory, research, and pedagogy. Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 2(1), 1–14. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Long, M. H.
(1988) Instructed interlanguage development. In L. Beebe (Ed.), Issues in second language acquisition: Multiple perspectives (pp. 115–141). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Loschky, L., & Bley-Vroman, R.
(1993) Grammar and task-based learning. In G. Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L.
(2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, P.
(1996) Consciousness, rules, and instructed second language acquisition. Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
(1997) Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 191, 223–247. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rosa, E. M., & Leow, R. P.
(2004a) Computerized task-based exposure, explicitness, type of feedback, and Spanish L2 development. Modern Language Journal, 88(2), 192–216. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2004b) Awareness, different learning conditions, and second language development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 251, 269–292. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rosa, E. M., & O’Neill, M.
(1999) Explicitness, intake, and the issue of awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(4), 511–556. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sanz, C., & Morgan-Short, K.
(2004) Positive evidence versus explicit rule presentation and explicit negative feedback: A computer-assisted study. Language Learning, 54(1), 35–78. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2005) Explicitness in pedagogical interventions: Input, practice, and feedback. In C. Sanz (Ed.), Mind & Context in adult second language acquisition (pp. 234–263). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Sanz, C., Lin, H., Lado, B., Stafford, C., & Bowden, H.
(2014) One size fits all? Learning conditions and working memory capacity in Ab Initio language development. Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Shaffer, C.
(1989) A comparison of inductive and deductive approaches to teaching foreign languages. Modern Language Journal, 731,395–403. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Spada, N., & Tomita, Y.
(2010) Interactions between type of instruction and type of language feature: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 60(2), 263–308. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Stafford, C., Bowden, H. W., & Sanz, C.
(2012) Optimizing language instruction: Matters of explicitness, practice and cue learning. Language Learning, 62(3), 741–768. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Tagarelli, K. M., Borges Mota, M., & Rebuschat, P.
(2015) Working memory, learning conditions, and the acquisition of L2 syntax. In W. Zhisheng, M. Borges Mota, & A. McNeill (Eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing: Theory, research and commentary. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Timberlake, A.
(2007) Aspect, tense, mood. In T. Shopen (Ed.), Language typology and syntactic description, Vol. 3, Grammatical categories and the lexicon (2nd ed., pp. 280–333). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
VanPatten, B.
(1996) Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Wong, W.
(2004) Processing instruction in French: The roles of explicit information and structured input. In B. VanPatten (Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research, and commentary (pp. 187–205). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar