From inference processes to situations of misunderstanding
A case study
In this paper, we describe inferences on a school task, which are reconstructed by the mean of two perspectives from argumentation theory: The pragma-dialectical model and Grize’s natural logic. Both analyses focus on the same item of mathematics, issued from a PISA survey, in order to discuss their specific contribution in elucidating the actual reasoning involved in both the student's answer and the evaluator’s expectations. The mismatch between these two points of view allow us to discuss the potentiality of a situation of misunderstanding.
Investigating how specific tasks in particular contexts are interpreted provides a contribution to methodological approaches treating thinking processes as situated and socially negotiated from a diversity of points of views, as for example
Inhelder’s (1962) microgenetic approach. In order to extend such analysis to interpretations of
discourse, an interdisciplinary approach combining argumentation theory and socio-cognitive psychology is needed.
Here, we observed for instance that students may provide the expected answers and still interpret the question or problem differently from the task’s designers (or “teacher”). The meaning of language and other signs, such as graphs or mathematical symbols, cannot be taken for granted when several interlocutors are involved. This issue chiefly concerns argumentation theory, since it raises the question of the integration of specific contexts and points of view in the analysis of argumentation. Therefore, argumentation should be analysed also as a process, and not only as a product; For more detail on this distinction, see for instance
Grize (1996) and Kuhn & Udell (
2003,
2007).
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 1.1School tasks interpretation: Inference processes, argumentation and misunderstanding
- 1.2A perspectivist epistemology
- 2.Theoretical framework
- 2.1A situated approach
- 2.2Moments for the investigation of inference processes at school
- 2.3Points of view
- 3.Methodology
- 3.1A descriptive approach in psychology
- 3.2Data collection and selection
- 3.3Procedure for the analyses
- 4.The case
- 4.1The PISA item
- 4.2A student’s answer
- 5.First analysis
- 5.1Introduction to the analytical model
- 5.2Evaluator’s point of view
- 5.3Student’s point of view
- 5.4Conclusion of the first analysis
- 6.Second analysis
- 6.1Introduction to the analytical model
- 6.2Evaluator’s point of view
- 6.3Student’s point of view
- 6.4Conclusion of the second analysis
- 7.Discussion
- Acknowledgements
- Notes
-
References
References (95)
References
Apostel, L., Grize, J.-B., Papert, S., and Piaget, J. 1963. La filiation des structures. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bautier, E., Crinon, J., Rayou, P., & Rochex, J.-Y. 2006. Performances en littéracie, modes de faire et univers mobilisés par les élèves: analyses secondaires de l’enquête PISA 2000. Revue Française de Pédagogie,
157
1, 85–101. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bautier, E. and Rayou, P. 2009. Les inégalités d’apprentissage : programmes, pratiques et malentendus scolaires. Paris: Presses Universitaire de France. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bautier, E., & Rochex, J.-Y. 2004. Activité conjointe ne signifie pas significations partagées. Raisons Éducatives. Situation Éducative et Significations,
8
1, 199–220. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bautier, E., & Rochex, J.-Y. 2007. Apprendre : des malentendus qui font la différence. In J. Deauvieau & J.-P. Terrail (dir.), Les sociologues, l’école et la transmission des savoirs (pp. 227–241). Paris: La Dispute.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bernstein, B. 1975. Langage et classes sociales. Editions de Minuit, Paris.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J.-C. 1970. La reproduction. Eléments pour une théorie du système d’enseignement. Paris, Minuit.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brousseau, G. 1998/2004. Théorie des situations didactiques. Grenoble: La Pensée Sauvage.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bruner, J. 1990. Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Donaldson, M. 1982. Conservation: what is the question? British Journal of Psychology,
73
1, 199–207. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Flyvbjerg, B. 2006. Five Misunderstandings About Case- Study Research. Qualitative Inquiry,
12
(2), 219–245. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Flyvjberg, B. 2011. Case Study. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln, (Eds), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, 4th Edition (pp. 301–316). Thousand Oaks: Sage.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Forman, E. A. & Larrenamendy-Joerns, J. 1998. Making Explicit the Implicit: Classroom Explanations and Conversational Implicatures. Mind, Culture, and Activity,
5
1, 105–113. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Freeman, J. B. 2018. Inferences, Inference Rules, Generalized Conditionals, Adequate Connections In: Oswald, S. & Maillat, D. (Eds.) 2018. Argumentation and Inference: Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Argumentation (pp.79–100). London: College Publications.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gerritsen, S. 2001. Unexpressed Premises. In F. H. van Eemeren (Ed.), Crucial concepts in argumentation theory (pp.50–80). Amsterdam: Sic Sat.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ghiglione, R. and Trognon, A. 1993. Où va la pragmatique ? Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Giere, R. N. 2006. Scientific Perspectivism. Chicago: The Chicago University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gigerenzer, G. & Todd, P. M. 1999. Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Goodwin, J. 2002. Designing issues. In F. H. van Eemeren, and P. Houtlosser, (Eds.), Dialectic and rhetoric: The warp and woof of argumentation analysis (pp. 81–96). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greco, S., De Cock, B. 2021. Argumentative misalignments in the controversy surrounding fashion sustainability, Journal of Pragmatic,
174
1, 55–67. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greco, S., Miserez-Caperos, C. & Perret-Clermont, A.-N. 2015. L’argumentation à visée cognitive chez les enfants. In N. Muller Mirza and C. Buty (Eds), L’argumentation dans les contextes de l’éducation (pp. 39–82). Bern: Peter Lang.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greco, S., Perret-Clermont, A. N., Iannaccone, A., Rocci, A., Convertini, J., & Schaer, R. 2018. The Analysis of Implicit Premises within Children’s Argumentative Inferences. Informal Logic,
38
(1), 438–470.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greco, S., Schär, R., Pollaroli, C., & Mercuri, C. 2018. Adding a temporal dimension to the analysis of argumentative discourse: Justified reframing as a means of turning a single-issue discussion into a complex argumentative discussion. Discourse Studies,
20
(6), 726–742. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greeno, 1987. Generative Processes in Representations of Problems. Final Report of research supported by the Office of Naval Research, Contract N00014-85-K-0095, Project NR 667–544. Berkeley: California University.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Greeno, J. G. 2006. Learning in Activity. In: Sawyer, R. K. (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Grice, H. P. 1979. Logique et conversation. Communications,
30
1, 57–72. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Grize, J.-B. 1982. De la logique à l’argumentation. Genève: Librairie Droz S.A. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Grize, J.-B. 1996. Logique naturelle & communications. Paris: PUF. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hughes, H., Williamson, K., and Lloyd, A. 2007. Critical incident technique. In: Lipu, S. (Ed.), Exploring methods in information literacy research (pp.49–66). Wagga Wagga, N.S.W.: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hundeide, K. 1985. The tacit background of children’s judgments. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture communication and cognition : Vygotskian perpectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hundeide, K. 2010. An interpretative approach to children. In D. Sommer, K. Hundeide, & I. Pramling (Eds.), Child perspective and children’s perspectives in theory and practice (pp. 119–137). Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New-York: Springer.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Inhelder, B. 1962. Some Aspects of Piaget’s Genetic Approach to Cognition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,
27
1, 17–31. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Inhelder, B., Cellerier, G., Ackermann, E., Blanchet, A., Boder, A., de Caprona, D., Ducret, J.-J., and Saada-Robert, M. 1992. Le cheminement des découvertes chez l’enfant. Delachaux & Niestlé.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Inhelder, B., and Piaget, J. 1955. De la logique de l’enfant à la logique de l’adolescent. Presses Universitaires de France.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kohler, A. 2015. Elements of natural logic for the Study of Unnoticed Misunderstanding in a Communicative Approach to Learning. Argumentum. Journal of the Seminar of Discursive Logic, Argumentation Theory and Rhetoric,
13
1, 80–96.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kohler, A. 2018. From the Logic of the Child to a natural logic: Perspectives as Knowledge. Human Arenas,
1
1, 97–111. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kohler, A., Lordelo, L. & Carriere, K. 2017. Researching Research: Three Perspectives for a Hint of Perspectivism. In: Sullivan, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Biennal Conference of the International Society of Theory of Psychology (pp.215–223). Coventry: Captus University Publication.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kohler, A. & Donzé, T. 2017. De la pensée qu’il faut apprendre ou formater, à l’apprentissage de la pensée : quelques éléments d’une épistémologie perspectiviste pour un usage scolaire. In: Lebrun, M. (Ed.), Et si l’école apprenait à penser… (pp. 59–84). Bienne: Éditions HEP-BEJUNE.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kohler, A. 2020a. Approches psychologiques de situations de malentendu dans des activités de didactique des sciences. Thèse de doctorat présentée à la Faculté des lettres et sciences humaines de l’Université de Neuchâtel; [URL]
Kohler, A. 2020b. La discussion à visée philosophique en classe : le problème d’une prise de parole authentique, Diotime,
7
1, 85, [URL]
Kohler, A. 2020c. Was Piaget a Perspectivist? Human Arenas,
1
1, 492–499. [URL]
Kohler, A., & Mehmeti, T. 2018. Studying the Process of Interpretation on a School Task: Crossing Perspectives. Paper presented at S. Oswald, & D. Maillat (Eds.), Argumentation and Inference: Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Argumentation. Fribourg 2017 (pp.453–478). London: College Publications.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kuhn, D., & Udell, W. 2003. The Development of Argument Skills. Child Development,
74
(5), 1245–1260. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kuhn, D., & Udell, W. 2007. Coordinating own and other perspectives in argument. Thinking & Reasoning,
13
(2), 90–104. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Le Hebel, F., Montpied, P., & Tiberghien, A. 2014. Which effective competencies do students use in PISA assessment of scientifi literacy? In A. Bruguière, A. Tiberghien, & P. Clément (Eds.), ESERA 2011 selected contributions. Topics and trends in current science education (pp. 273–289). Dordrecht: Springer. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Le Hebel, F., Montpied, P., & Tiberghien, A. 2016. Which Answering Strategies Do Low Achievers Use to Solve PISA Science Items? In N. Papadouris, A. Hadjigeorgiou, & P. C. Constantinou (Eds.), Insights from Research in Science Teaching and Learning: Selected Papers from the ESERA 2013 Conference (pp. 237–252). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Retrieved from ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lipman, M. 2003. Thinking in Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Mehmeti, T. (in preparation). Processus de sens et cheminements de pensée d’élèves dans des situations scolaires: démarche théorique et réflexive pour dépasser une approche en termes de déficits. Thèse de doctorat à la Faculté des lettres et sciences humaines de l’Université de Neuchâtel.
Mehmeti, T. 2016. Students Argumentation in a Standardized Test: Case Study with a Released Item from PISA. Presented at K. Kumpulainen (Chair), Students Perspectives to the Tasks and Demands of Schooling. Symposium conducted at EARLI SIG 10, 21 and 25 joint conference, Reflective minds and communities, University of Tartu.
Mehmeti, T., & Perret-Clermont, A. N. 2016. Seeking Success of Migrant Students through Designed Tasks: A Case Study with Albanian Students in Switzerland. In A. Surian (Ed.) Open Spaces for Interactions and Learning Diversities (pp. 137–150). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Mehmeti, T., Perret-Clermont, A. N., & Iannaccone, A. 2016. Multiplicity of cognitive demands in a PISA item. Presented at J. Radisic & A. Baucal (Chairs), Large Scale Assessments as Tools for Reflection on the Teaching and the Learning Process. Symposium conducted at EARLI SIG 10, 21 and 25 joint conference. Reflective minds and communities, University of Tartu.
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. 2003. Analyses des données qualitatives. Bruxelles: De Boeck.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Miserez-Caperos, C. 2017. Étude de l’argumentation à visée cognitive dans des interactions entre adulte et enfants: un regard psychosocial sur le modèle pragma-dialectique. Thèse de Doctorat, Université de Neuchâtel, retrieved from [URL]
Muller Mirza, N. & Perret-Clermont, A. N. 2009. Argumentation and Education: Theoretical Foundation and Practices. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Nonnon, E. 2015. Préface. In N. Muller Mirza & C. Buty (Eds.), L’argumentation dans les contextes de l’éducation (pp. 1–11). Berne: Peter Lang.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
OECD 2004. Learning for Tomorrow’s World – First Results from PISA 2003. OECD. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
OECD 2006. Pisa Released Items – Mathematics. Retrieved on 15th of June 2021 from [URL]
OECD 2009. Take the Test Sample Questions from OECD’s PISA Assessments. OECD. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
OECD 2014. PISA 2012 Results in Focus. What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know. OECD.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perelman, C. & Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. 1958. Traité de l’argumentation. Bruxelles: Editions de l’Université de Bruxelles.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. 1979. La construction de l’intelligence dans l’interaction sociale. Berne: Peter Lang.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. 1980. Recherche en psychologie sociale expérimentale et activité éducative. Revue Française de Pédagogie,
53
1, 30–38. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. 1992. Les implicites dans les situations d’apprentissage Cahiers de l’Institut Supérieur de Pédagogie de l’Université Catholique de Paris
,
19
1, 20–53.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. & Carugati, F. 2001. Learning and Instruction, Social-Cognitive Perspectives. In: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (pp. 8586–8588). Oxford: Pergamon. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Piaget, J. 1937/1967. La construction du réel chez l’enfant. Lausanne, Paris: Delachaux et Niestlé.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Piaget, J., and Garcia, R. 1987. Vers une logique des significations. Genève: Murionde.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. 1948. La représentation de l’espace chez l’enfant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. 1966. La psychologie de l’enfant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Plantin, C. 2005. L’argumentation: histoire, théories et perspectives. Paris: PUF. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Plantin, C. 2011. Pour une approche intégrée du champ de l’argumentation: Etat de la question et questions controversées. In: Braun-Dahlet, V. (Ed.), Ciências da linguagem e didática das línguas Sciences du langage et didactique des langues: 30 ans de coopération franco-brésilienne (pp.181–207), FAPESP.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Psaltis, C., Duveen, G., and Perret-Clermont, A. N. 2009. The social and the psychological: Structure and context in intellectual development. Human Development,
52
1, 291–312. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Psaltis, C., and Zapiti, A. 2014. Interaction, Communication and Development. Psychological development as a social process. London: Routledge. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rochex, J.-Y. & Crinon, J. (Ed.), 2011. La construction des inégalités scolaires. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rochex, J.-Y. 2006. Social, Methodological, and Theoretical Issues regarding Assessment: Lessons from a Secondary Analysis of PISA 2000 Literacy Tests. Review of Research in Education,
30
1, 163–212. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Säljö, R. 1991. Piagetian controversies, Cognitive competance, and assumption about human communication. Educational Psychology Review,
3
(2), 117–126. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schär, R. G. 2018. On the negotiation of the issue in discussions among young children and their parents. Travaux neuchâtelois de linguistique Tranel,
68
1, 17–25. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schär, R. G., & Greco, S. 2018. The Emergence of Issues in Everyday Discussions between Adults and Children. International Journal of Semiotics and Visual Rhetoric,
2
(1) 29–43. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schubauer-Leoni, M. L., & Grossen, M. 1993. Negotiating the meaning of questions in didactic and experimental contracts. European Journal of Psychology of Education,
VIII
(4), 451–471. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schwarz, B., & Baker, M. 2017. Dialogue, argumentation and education: History, theory and practice. New York City: Cambridge University Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Serder, M., & Jakobsson, A. 2015. “Why bother so incredibly much?”: student perspectives on PISA science assignments. Cultural Studies of Science Education,
10
(3), 833–853. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Serder, M., & Jakobsson, A. 2016. Language Games and Meaning as Used in Student Encounters With Scientific Literacy Test Items. Science Education,
100
(2), 321–343. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tartas, V., Perret-Clermont, A.-N., and Baucal, A. 2016. Experimental micro-histories, private speech and a study of children’s learning and cognitive development / Microhistorias experimentales, habla privada y un estudio del aprendizaje y el desarrollo cognitivo en los niños. Infancia y Aprendizaje,
39
1, 772–811. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Vergnaud, G. 2015. Argumentation et conceptualisation: Commentaires. In: Muller Mirza, N., and Buty, C. (Ed.), L’argumentation dans les contextes de l’éducation (pp.383–392). Berne: Peter Lang.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
van Eemeren, F. H.; Garssen, B.; Krabbe, E. C. W.; Henkemans, F. A. S.; Verhey, B. & Wagemans, J. H. M. 2014. Handbook of Argumentation Theory. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
van Eemeren, F. H. & Grootendorst, R. 1992. Argumentation, communication, and fallacies: A pragma-dialectical perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
van Eemeren, F. H., & Grootendorst, R. 2004. A Systematic Theory of Argumentation : The pragma-dialectical approach. Amsterdam: The press syndicate of the university of Cambridge.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
van Eemeren, F. H., Grootendorst, R., Jackson, S., & Jacobs, S. 1993. Reconstructing Argumentative Discourse. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: The University of Alabama Press.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
van Eemeren, F. H., Grootendorst, R., & Snoeck Henkemans, A. F. 2002. Argumentation: Analysis, evaluation, presentation. Mahwah (NJ)/London: Erlbaum. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
van Eemeren, F. H., Houtlosser, P., & Snoeck Henkemans, A. F. 2007. Argumentative indicators in discourse. A pragma-dialectical study. Dordrecht: Springer. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Voss, J. F., & Van Dyke, J. A. 2001. Argumentation in psychology: Background comments. Discourse Processes,
32
(2–3), 89–111. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Weil-Barais, A. 1993. L’homme cognitif. Paris: PUF.![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zeidler, D. L. (Ed.) 2003. The Role of Moral Reasoning on Socioscientific Issues and Discourse in Science Education. Dordrecht, Boston, London, Kluwer Academic Publishers. ![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)