Cover not available
Article published In:
Language Immersion Education: A research agenda for 2015 and beyond
Edited by Diane J. Tedick and Siv Björklund
[Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 2:2] 2014
► pp. 257–272

Attending to the third goal

Cross-cultural competence and identity development in two-way immersion programs

| Brigham Young University
| University of Connecticut

In two-way immersion (TWI) programs in the United States, the development of student cross-cultural competence is one of three primary goals, along with academic achievement and bilingualism and biliteracy. However, as “the third goal,” cross-cultural outcomes have received less scholarly attention. In this article, we briefly review the literature on cross-cultural outcomes for students in TWI programs, and highlight a consistent focus on the self in these studies, particularly as it relates to student identity. As cross-cultural competence begins with awareness of the self within the socially and culturally diverse classrooms that TWI provides, we assert that scholarly attention should be paid to the ways that TWI programs support identity development as an aspect of achieving the third goal of cross-cultural competence. We offer brief descriptions of three theoretical frameworks that hold promise for scholars considering student identity development within TWI, and close with suggestions for further research.

Keywords: identity, cross-cultural competence, two-way immersion
Published online: 12 September 2014
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/jicb.2.2.07fei
References (75)
Ahlgren, P
(1993) La Escuela Fratney [The Fratney School]. Reflections on a bilingual, anti-bias, multicultural elementary school. Teaching Tolerance, 2(2), 26–31.Google Scholar
Atkinson, D.R., Morton, G., & Sue, D.W
(Eds.) (1998) Counseling American minorities. New York: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Bakhtin, M
(1981) The dialogic imagination: Four essays by M.M. Bakhtin. Austin: University of Texas.Google Scholar
Banks, J.A
(2002) An introduction to multicultural education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Beeman, K., & Urow, C
(2013) Teaching for biliteracy: Strengthening bridges between languages. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon.Google Scholar
Bearse, C., & de Jong, E
(2008) Cultural and linguistic investment: Adolescents in a secondary two-way immersion program. Equity & Excellence in Education, 41(3), 325–340. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Block, N
(2011) The impact of two-way dual immersion programs on initially English-dominant Latino students’ attitudes. Bilingual Research Journal, 34(2), 125–141. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bordieu, P
(1991) Language and symbolic power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U
(1979) The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cazabon, M., Lambert, W.E., & Hall, G
(1993) Two-way bilingual education: A progress report on the Amigos program (Research Rep. No. 7). Santa Cruz, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.Google Scholar
Cazabon, M., Nicoladis, W., & Lambert, W.E
(1998) Becoming bilingual in the Amigos Two-Way Immersion Program (Research Rep. No. 3). Santa Cruz, CA: Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence.Google Scholar
Christian, D
(1996) Two-way immersion education: Students learning through two languages. Modern Language Journal, 801, 66–76. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011) Dual language education. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. 21, pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Christian, D., Howard, E., & Loeb, M
(2000) Bilingualism for all: Two-way immersion education in the United States. Theory into Practice, 39(4), 258–266. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Connerly, M.L., & Pedersen, P
(2005) Leadership in a diverse and multicultural environment: Developing awareness, knowledge, and skills. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Constantine, M.G., Hage, S.M., Kindaichi, M.M., & Bryant, R.M
(2007) Social justice and multicultural issues: Implications for the practice and training of counselors and counseling psychologists. Journal of Counseling & Development, 851, 24–29. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cooper, C.R., García-Coll, C.T., Bartko, W.T., Davis, H., & Chatman, C
(2005) Editor’s introduction. In C.R. Cooper, C.T. Garcia-Coll, W.T. Bartko, H. Davis, & C. Chatman (Eds.), Developmental pathways through middle childhood: Rethinking contexts and diversity as resources (pp. 1–13). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cross, W
(1978) The Thomas and Cross models of psychological nigrescence: A literature review. Journal of Black Psychology, 41, 12–31.Google Scholar
Cummins, J
(2014) Beyond language: Academic communication and student success. Linguistics and Education, 261, 145–154. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Davies, B., & Harré, R
(1990) Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20(1), 43–63. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
de Jong, E., & Bearse, C.I
(2011) The same outcomes for all? High school students reflect upon their two-way immersion program experiences. In D.J. Tedick, D. Christian, & T.W. Fortune (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 104–122). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
de Jong, E., & Howard, E
(2009) Integration in two-way immersion education: Equalizing linguistic benefits for all students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 121, 81–99. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Erikson, E.H
(1968) Identity: Youth in crisis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Feinauer, E., & Whiting, E.F
(2012) Examining the socio-linguistic context in schools and neighborhoods of pre-adolescent Latino students: Implications for ethnic identity. Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 11(1), 52–74. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fitts, S
(2009) Exploring third space in a dual-language setting: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Latinos and Education, 8(2), 87–104. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Foucault, M
(1982) Power/knowledge. New York, NY: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Freeman, R.D
(1998) Bilingual education and social change. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
(1996) Dual-language planning at Oyster Bilingual School: “It’s much more than language”. TESOL Quarterly, 30(3), 557–582. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1994) Language planning and identity planning: An emergent understanding. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 10(1), 1–20.Google Scholar
Gay, G
(2000) Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research and practice. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Gee, J
(2001) Identity as an analytic lens for research in education. Review of Research in Education, 251, 99–125.Google Scholar
Genessee, F., & Gándara, P
(1999) Bilingual education programs: A cross-national perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 55(4), 665–685. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gerena, L
(2010) Student attitudes toward biliteracy in a dual immersion program. The Reading Matrix, 10(1), 55–78.Google Scholar
Gort, M
(2008) “You give me idea!”: Collaborative strides toward bilingualism, biliteracy, and cross-cultural understanding in a two-way partial immersion program. Multicultural Perspectives, 10(4), 192–200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gruber, H.E., & Vonèche, J.J
(1995) The essential Piaget: An interpretive reference and guide. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez, K
(2008) Developing a sociocritical literacy in the third space. Reading Research Quarterly, 43(2), 148–164. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hadi-Tabassum, S
(2006) Language, space and power: A critical look at bilingual education. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hays, D.G
(2008) Assessing multicultural competence in counselor trainees: A review of instrumentation and future directions. Journal of Counseling and Development, 861, 95–101. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Helms, J.E
(1990) Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Howard, E.R., Sugarman, J., & Christian, D
(2003) Trends in two-way immersion education: A review of the research (Report no. 63). Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk.Google Scholar
Knowles, E.D., & Kaiping, P
(2005) White selves: Conceptualizing and measuring a dominant-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(2), 223–241. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kramsch, C
(2009) The multilingual subject. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lave, J., & Wenger, E
(1991) Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lee, R.M., & Yoo, H.C
(2004) Structure and measurement of ethnic identity for Asian American college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(2), 263–269. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
LeVine, R.A
(1990) Enculturation: A biosocial perspective on the development of self. In D. Cicchetti & M. Beeghly (Eds.), The self in transition: Infancy to childhood (pp. 99–117). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lindholm, K
(1990) Bilingual immersion education: Criteria for program development. In A. Padilla, H. Fairchild, & C. Valadez (Eds.), Bilingual education: Issues and strategies (pp. 91–105). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K.J
(2011) Student outcomes in Chinese two-way immersion programs: Language proficiency, academic achievement, and student attitudes. In D.J. Tedick, D. Christian, & T.W. Fortune (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 81–103). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K., & Borsato, G
(2001) Impact of two-way bilingual elementary programs on students’ attitudes toward school and college (Research Report 10). Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K.J., & Ferrante, A
(2005) Follow-up study of middle school two-way students: Language proficiency, achievement, and attitudes. In R. Hoosain & F. Salili (Eds.), Language in multicultural education (pp. 157–179). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.Google Scholar
Marcia, J.E
(1980) Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159–187). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Markus, H. & Nurius, P
(1986) Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954–969. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McCollom, P
(1999) Learning to value English: Cultural capital in a two-way bilingual program. Bilingual Research Journal, 23(2-3), 113–134. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Norton, B
(2013) Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd ed.). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ochs, E
(1990) Indexicality and socialization. In J.W. Stigler, R.A. Schweder, & G. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 287–308). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Palmer, D.K
(2008) Building and destroying students’ ‘academic identities’: The power of discourse in a two-way immersion classroom. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 21(6), 647–667. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2009) Code-switching and symbolic power in a second-grade two-way classroom: A teacher’s motivation system gone awry. Bilingual Research Journal, 32(1), 42–59. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Parkes, J., & Ruth, T. (with Angerg-Espinoza, A., & de Jong, E). (
2009) Urgent research questions and issues in dual language education. Albuquerque, NM: Dual Language Education of New Mexico.Google Scholar
Patterson, S.J., Sochting, I., & Marcia, J
(1992) The inner space and beyond: Women and identity. In G.R. Adas, T.P. Gullotta, & R. Montemayer (Eds.), Adolescent identity formation (pp. 9–24). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Pedersen, P
(2000) A handbook for developing multicultural awareness (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.Google Scholar
Phinney, J.S
(1993) A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence. In M.E. Bernal & G.P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 61–70). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
(1990) Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 499–514. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Phinney, J.S., & Ong, A.D
(2007) Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 541, 271–281. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Potowski, K
(2004) Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom: Implications for second language and heritage language maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 881, 75–101. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2007) Language and identity in a dual immersion school. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Quintana, S.M
(1994) A model of ethnic perspective-taking ability applied to Mexican-American children and youth. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18(4), 419–448. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reyes, S., & Vallone, T
(2007) Toward an expanded understanding of two-way additive bilingual/bicultural pedagogy. Multicultural Perspectives, 9(3), 3–11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rolstad, K
(1997) Effects of two-way immersion on the ethnic identification of third language students: An exploratory study. Bilingual Research Journal, 21(1), 43–63. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rotheram, M.J., & Phinney, J.S
(1987) Ethnic behavior patterns as an aspect of identity. In J.S. Phinney & M.J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children’s ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (pp. 201–218). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Rubinstein-Avila, E
(2002) Problematizing the “dual” in a dual-immersion program: A portrait. Linguistics and Education, 13(1), 65–87. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Garcia, O
(1995) Multilingualism for all—general principles? In T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Ed.), Multilingualism for all (pp. 221–256). Lisse, Holland: Swets and Zeitlinger.Google Scholar
Sue, D.W
(2001) Multidimensional facets of cultural competence. Counseling Psychologist, 291, 790–821. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1991) A conceptual model for cultural diversity training. Journal of Counseling and Development, 701, 99–105. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vygotsky, L.S
(1986) Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Weedon, C
(1997) Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory (2nd ed.). London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Whiting, E., Feinauer, E., & VanDerwerken, D
(2012) Taking a closer look at Latino parents at one Spanish-English two-way immersion charter school. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 33(5), 497–510. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by (37)

Cited by 37 other publications

Chaparro, Sofía E.
2024. Hybrid languaging and literacy practices as cross-cultural competence in a Spanish-English Two-Way Immersion Program. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction 47 ► pp. 100823 ff. DOI logo
De-María, Berta, Gabriela Topa & M. Angeles López-González
2024. Cultural Competence Interventions in European Healthcare: A Scoping Review. Healthcare 12:10 ► pp. 1040 ff. DOI logo
Domke, Lisa M., Laura A. May, María A. Cerrato, Elizabeth H. Sanders, Melody Kung & Gary E. Bingham
2024. How dual language bilingual education preservice teachers draw upon and develop students' sociocultural competence. Foreign Language Annals DOI logo
Feinauer, Erika, Erin Feinauer Whiting & Elizabeth R. Howard
2024. School leadership envisions sociocultural competence: a case study of one private dual language bilingual education school in Central America. International Multilingual Research Journal ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Whiting, Erin Feinauer, Erika Feinauer, Sionelle Nicole Beller & Elizabeth R. Howard
2024. Kindergarteners’ perceptions of belonging and inclusion in a two-way immersion classroom. International Journal of Inclusive Education 28:4 ► pp. 360 ff. DOI logo
Block, Nicholas C.
2023. Students’ attitudinal development in a dual language bilingual education program from Grade 1 to Grade 5. Bilingual Research Journal 45:3-4 ► pp. 337 ff. DOI logo
de Jong, Ester J., Zach Coulter & Min-Chuan Tsai
2023. Two-way bilingual education programs and sense of belonging: perspectives from middle school students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 26:1 ► pp. 84 ff. DOI logo
Ee, Jongyeon
2023. Are parents satisfied with integrated classrooms?: Exploring integration in dual language programs. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 26:7 ► pp. 800 ff. DOI logo
Feinauer, Erika, Rich DeJordy & Elizabeth R. Howard
2023. Using social network analysis to investigate sociocultural competence among kindergarteners in a two-way immersion classroom. Bilingual Research Journal 46:3-4 ► pp. 290 ff. DOI logo
Hamman-Ortiz, Laura
2023. Becoming bilingual in two-way immersion: patterns of investment in a second-grade classroom. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 26:1 ► pp. 69 ff. DOI logo
Hamman-Ortiz, Laura & Deborah Palmer
2023. Identity and two-way bilingual education: considering student perspectives: introduction to the special issue. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 26:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Hopkins, Megan, Joanna Kurowska-Pysz, Edyta Nowak-Żółty, Michał Szyszka & Lawrence Jun Zhang
2023. Attending to cross-border sociocultural competence in bilingual programs in the Polish-Czech border region: An exploratory study. PLOS ONE 18:11 ► pp. e0293069 ff. DOI logo
Leu Bonanno, Sandra
2023. Examining the Foundations of Culturally and Linguistically Sustaining School Leadership: Towards a Democratic Project of Schooling in Dual Language Bilingual Education. Educational Administration Quarterly 59:1 ► pp. 72 ff. DOI logo
Freire, Juan A. & Erika Feinauer
2022. Vernacular Spanish as a promoter of critical consciousness in dual language bilingual education classrooms. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 25:4 ► pp. 1516 ff. DOI logo
Silva-Enos, Sandra, Elizabeth R. Howard, Erin Feinauer Whiting & Erika Feinauer
2022. Tensions between equity and elitism for local scholarship students in an international school. Globalisation, Societies and Education ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Heiman, Daniel & Mariela Nuñez-Janes
2021. “Research shows that I am here for them”: Acompañamiento as language policy activism in times of TWBE gentrification. Language Policy 20:3 ► pp. 491 ff. DOI logo
Lee, Jin Sook & Tiange Wang
2021. A review of Korean/English and Mandarin/English dual language programs in the United States. Language Teaching for Young Learners 3:1 ► pp. 28 ff. DOI logo
Séror, Jérémie & Alysse Weinberg
2021. Exploring the longitudinal impact of university immersion: Bilingual spaces, multilingual values. System 99 ► pp. 102523 ff. DOI logo
Thomas, Amy E. Kirkley, David R. Byrd & DeeDee Mower
2021. Bridging Family-Teacher Relationships in a Predominately Latinx Title I School With a Spanish-English Dual Immersion Strand Program. In Bridging Family-Teacher Relationships for ELL and Immigrant Students [Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education, ], ► pp. 140 ff. DOI logo
Thomas, Amy E. Kirkley, David R. Byrd & DeeDee Mower
2022. Bridging Family-Teacher Relationships in a Predominately Latinx Title I School With a Spanish-English Dual Immersion Strand Program. In Research Anthology on Bilingual and Multilingual Education, ► pp. 194 ff. DOI logo
Freire, Juan A.
2020. Promoting Sociopolitical Consciousness and Bicultural Goals of Dual Language Education: The Transformational Dual Language Educational Framework. Journal of Language, Identity & Education 19:1 ► pp. 56 ff. DOI logo
Freire, Juan A.
2021. Conscientization Calls: A White Dual Language Educator’s Development of Sociopolitical Consciousness and Commitment to Social Justice. Education and Urban Society 53:2 ► pp. 231 ff. DOI logo
González-Carriedo, Ricardo, Karen Weiller & Rossana Boyd
2020. “¡A Saltar!” Using movement to enhance the development of bilingualism. NABE Journal of Research and Practice 10:2 ► pp. 47 ff. DOI logo
Newcomer, Sarah N.
2020. “Who We Are Today”: Latinx Youth Perspectives on the Possibilities of Being Bilingual and Bicultural. Journal of Language, Identity & Education 19:3 ► pp. 193 ff. DOI logo
Slapac, Alina & Sujin Kim
2020. Creating Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Classroom Communities in Early Childhood Language Immersion Schools. In International Perspectives on Modern Developments in Early Childhood Education [Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Slapac, Alina & Sujin Kim
2021. Creating Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Classroom Communities in Early Childhood Language Immersion Schools. In Research Anthology on Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning, ► pp. 35 ff. DOI logo
Alfaro, Cristina
2019. Preparing Critically Conscious Dual-Language Teachers: Recognizing and Interrupting Dominant Ideologies. Theory Into Practice 58:2 ► pp. 194 ff. DOI logo
Block, Nicholas & Lorena Vidaurre
2019. Comparing attitudes of first-grade dual language immersion versus mainstream English students. Bilingual Research Journal 42:2 ► pp. 129 ff. DOI logo
Cressey, James
2019. Developing culturally responsive social, emotional, and behavioral supports. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning 12:1 ► pp. 53 ff. DOI logo
de Jong, Ester J.
2018. Two‐Way Immersion. In The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Heiman, Daniel & Michelle Yanes
2018. Centering the Fourth Pillar in Times of TWBE Gentrification: “Spanish, Love, Content, Not in That Order”. International Multilingual Research Journal 12:3 ► pp. 173 ff. DOI logo
Leung, Genevieve, Yuuko Uchikoshi & Rosina Tong
2018. “Learning Cantonese will help us”: Elementary school students’ perceptions of dual language education. Bilingual Research Journal 41:3 ► pp. 238 ff. DOI logo
Yang, Lu, Genevieve Leung, Rosina Tong & Yuuko Uchikoshi
2018. Student attitudes and Cantonese proficiency in a Cantonese dual immersion school. Foreign Language Annals 51:3 ► pp. 596 ff. DOI logo
Burns, Meg
2017. “Compromises that we make”: Whiteness in the dual language context. Bilingual Research Journal 40:4 ► pp. 339 ff. DOI logo
Cervantes-Soon, Claudia G., Lisa Dorner, Deborah Palmer, Dan Heiman, Rebecca Schwerdtfeger & Jinmyung Choi
2017. Combating Inequalities in Two-Way Language Immersion Programs: Toward Critical Consciousness in Bilingual Education Spaces. Review of Research in Education 41:1 ► pp. 403 ff. DOI logo
Stolte, Laurel
2017. Discussing difference: Color-blind collectivism and dynamic dissonance in two-way immersion contexts. Bilingual Research Journal 40:2 ► pp. 205 ff. DOI logo
Christian, Donna
2016. Dual Language Education: Current Research Perspectives. International Multilingual Research Journal 10:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 4 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.