Article published in:
Approaches to Variation in Creole Studies
Edited by Isabelle Léglise, Bettina Migge and Nicolas Quint
[Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 36:1] 2021
► pp. 109–174

Variable subject pronoun expression in Cabo-Verdean Creole

Some language-internal constraints

| University at Buffalo (SUNY) , USA

The Cabo-Verdean Creole (CVC) subject domain has clitic and tonic pronouns that often amalgamate in double subject pronoun constructions; the possibility of a zero-subject and the formal category underlying subject clitics are disputed (Baptista 1995, 2002; Pratas 2004). This article discusses five variable constraints that condition subject expression across three descriptive and inferential analyses of a corpus of speech collected from 33 speakers from Santiago and Maio. Double subject pronoun constructions and zero-subjects were promoted by a persistence effect, though for the former this applied across nonadjacent clauses since double subject pronoun constructions are switch reference and contrastive devices resembling the doubling of agreement suffixes by independent pronouns in languages traditionally classified as pro-drop. Zero-subjects were favored in third-person contexts as previously observed by Baptista and Bayer (2013), and when a semantically referentially deficient (Duarte & Soares da Silva 2016) DP antecedent was in an Intonational Unit that was prosodically and syntactically linked to the Intonational Unit containing the target anaphor (Torres Cacoullos & Travis 2019). Results support reclassification of CVC subject clitics as ambiguous person agreement markers (Siewierska 2004) and suggest that CVC is developing a split-paradigm for person marking and subject expression (Wratil 2009; Baptista & Bayer 2013).

Keywords: subject pronoun expression, anaphora resolution, clitic, person marker, zero anaphor, null subject, conominal, specificity, creole, Portuguese
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Overt subject pronouns in Cabo-Verdean Creole
    • 2.1Two classifications of the subject pronominal paradigm in Cabo-Verdean Creole and some notes on their distribution
    • 2.2The debate over the formal and functional status of atonic person markers in CVC and cross-linguistically
      • 2.2.1The Phonological Clitic Hypothesis or bound-argument view
      • 2.2.2The Inflectional Affix Hypothesis or the virtual-agreement view
      • 2.2.3The dual-nature view and grammaticalization yielding ambiguous person agreement markers
      • 2.2.4The double-expression view
      • 2.2.5The split-paradigm view
  • 3.‘True’ zero-subjects in CVC and potential conditioning constraints suggested by evidence in variationist sociolinguistics and cognitive discourse analysis
    • 3.1Zero-subjects in CVC
    • 3.2Subject pronoun expression from the variationist sociolinguistic and cognitive discourse analysis perspectives
      • 3.2.1Persistence of morphosyntactic form
      • 3.2.2Referential accessibility and coherence
      • 3.2.3Language-specific exceptions to accessibility-based accounts and zero-subjects with less accessible referents
  • 4.Research questions and methods
    • 4.1Research questions
    • 4.2Materials and data collection
    • 4.3Transcription
    • 4.4Delimiting the envelope of variation
    • 4.5Coding the predictor variables
    • 4.6Statistical procedures
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1Results for surface form of the antecedent
    • 5.2 linking between Intonational Units and person-number
    • 5.3Results for antecedent accessibility pattern
    • 5.4Results for conditions related to semantic referential deficiency
  • 6.Discussion
    • 6.1The status of subject clitics in Cabo-Verdean Creole
  • 7.Conclusions and future directions
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Glossary
  • References
Published online: 25 March 2021
https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.00071.rod
References
Abreu, Laurel
2012 Subject pronoun expression and priming effects among bilingual speakers of Puerto Rican Spanish. In Kimberly Geeslin and Manuel Díaz-Campos (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 14th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium, 1–8. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Adone, Dany
1994 Creolization and language change in Mauritian Creole. In Dany Adone & Ingo Plag (eds.), Creolization and Language Change, 24–43. Tübingen: Niemeyer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Akaike, Hirotogu
1998 Information Theory and an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In Emanuel Parzen, Kunio Tanabe, & Genshiro Kitagawa (eds.), Selected Papers of Hirotugu Akaike, 199–213. New York: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ariel, Mira
1990 Accessing noun-phrase antecedents. Abington, Oxon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
2001 Accessibility theory: An overview. In Ted J. M. Sanders, Joost Schilperoord & Wilbert Spooren (eds.), Text representation: Linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects, 29–87. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Auger, Julie
2003 Le redoublement des sujets en picard. Journal of French Language Studies 13(3). 381–404. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baker, Brett J. & Nicholas Evans
2002 How referential is agreement?: The interpretation of polysynthetic dis-agreement morphology in Ngalakgan. In Hans-Jürgen Sasse (ed.), Problems of Polysynthesis, 51–86. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baker, Mark C.
1996 The Polysynthesis Parameter. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baker, Philip
1972 Kreol: A Description of Mauritian Creole. London: C. Hurst.Google Scholar
Baptista, Marlyse
1995 On the pro-drop parameter in Cape Verdean Creole. Harvard Working Papers in Linguistics 51. 3–17.Google Scholar
1999 On the nature of the morpheme e in Cape Verdean Creole: to be or not to be, In Klaus Zimmermann (ed.), Lenguas criollas de base lexical española y portuguesa, 25–47. Berlin-Madrid: Vervuert-Iberoamericana.Google Scholar
2002 The Syntax of Cape Verdean Creole: The Sotavento Varieties. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baptista, Marlyse & Rachel Bayer
2013 Licensing argument drop in Cape Verdean Creole. Presented at the Society of Pidgin and Creole Linguistics , Lisbon. June 19–21.
Bartens, Ángela & Eeva Sippola
2013 Subject null arguments in creole languages. Subject: cognitive, typological and functional approaches, University of Helsinki, September 12.Google Scholar
Bates, Douglas, Martin Mächler, Ben Bolker, & Steve Walker
2015 Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software 67(1). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Belsley, David A.
1991 Conditioning diagnostics: Collinearity and weak data in regression. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bouchard, Marie-Eve
2018 Subject pronoun expression in Santomean Portuguese. Journal of Portuguese Linguistics 171: 5. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brandi, Luciana & Patrizia Cordin
1989 Two Italian dialects and the Null Subject Parameter. In Osvaldo A. Jaeggli & Kenneth J. Safir (eds.), The Null Subject Parameter, 151:111–142. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bresnan, Joan & Sam A. Mchombo
1987 Topic, pronoun, and agreement in Chicheŵa. Language 63(4): 741. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cameron, Richard & Nydia Flores-Ferrán
2004 Perseveration of subject expression across regional dialects of Spanish. Spanish in Context 1(1): 41–65. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cardinaletti, Anna & Michal Starke
1999 The typology of structural deficiency: A case study of the three classes of pronouns. In Henk van Riemsdijk (ed.), Eurotyp, 145–234. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carvalho, Ana Maria & Michael Child
2011 Subject pronoun expression in a variety of Spanish in contact with Portuguese, In Jim Michnowicz & Robin Dodsworth (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, 14–25. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Carvalho, Ana Maria, Rafael Orozco & Naomi Lapidus Shin
(eds.) 2015 Subject pronoun expression in Spanish: A cross-dialectal perspective. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Chafe, Wallace L.
1987 Cognitive constraints on information flow. In Russel S. Tomlin (ed.), Coherence and Grounding in Discourse: Outcome of a Symposium, Eugene, Oregon, June 1984, 21–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1993 Prosodic and functional units of language. In Jane A. Edwards & Martin D. Lampert (eds.), Talking data: Transcription and coding in discourse research, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
1994 Discourse, consciousness, and time: The flow and displacement of conscious experience in speaking and writing. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Ping
1986 Referent introducing and tracking in Chinese narratives. University of California, Los Angeles dissertation.Google Scholar
Claes, Jeroen
2017 Probabilistic Grammar: The view from cognitive sociolinguistics. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 2(1): 62. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Corbett, Greville
2006 Agreement. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cornish, Francis
1999 Anaphora, discourse, and understanding: Evidence from English and French. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Costa, João & Fernanda Pratas
2008 Licenciar pro não significa ser uma língua pro-drop: evidência do caboverdiano. In Sónia Frota & Ana Lúcia Santos (eds.), XXIII Encontro Nacional da Associação Portuguesa de Linguística, 157–66. Lisbon: Associação Portuguesa de Linguística.Google Scholar
2013 Embedded null subjects in Capeverdean. Journal of Linguistics 49(1): 33–53. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Croft, William
2001 Radical Construction Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Culbertson, Jennifer
2010 Convergent evidence for categorial change in French: From subject clitic to agreement marker. Language 86(1): 85–132. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Culbertson, Jennifer & Simon Kirby
2016 Simplicity and specificity in language: Domain-general biases have domain-specific effects. Frontiers in Psychology 61. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Cat, Cécile
2005 French subject clitics are not agreement markers. Lingua 115(9): 1195–1219. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2007 French dislocation: Interpretation, syntax, acquisition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
DeGraff, Michel
1993 Is Haitian Creole a pro-drop language? In Francis Byrne & John Holm (eds.), Creole Language Library, 11:71. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Déprez, Viviane
1994 Haitian Creole: A pro-drop language? Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 9(1): 1–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dione, Cheikh B.
2013 Handling Wolof clitics in LFG. In Christine M. Salvesen & Hans P. Helland (eds.), Challenging Clitics, 2061:87–118. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Du Bois, John W., Stephan Schuetze-Coburn, Susanna Cumming, & Danae Paolino
1993 Outline of discourse transcription. In Jane A. Edwards & Martin D. Lampert (eds.), Talking data: Transcription and coding in discourse research, 45–89. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Duarte, Maria Eugênia L. & Humberto Soares da Silva
2016 Microparametric variation in Spanish and Portuguese. In Mary A. Kato & Francisco Ordoñez (eds.), The Morphosyntax of Portuguese and Spanish in Latin America, 1–26. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dunigan, Melynda B.
1994 On the clausal structure of Wolof. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill dissertation.Google Scholar
Farrington, Charles Ryan
2019 Language variation and change: Regionality and African American Language. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon dissertation.Google Scholar
Givón, Talmy
1976 Topic, pronoun and grammatical agreement. In Charles N. Li (ed.), Subject and Topic, 151–88. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
1983 Topic continuity in discourse: The functional domain of switch-reference. In John Haiman & Pamela Munro (eds.), Switch reference and Universal Grammar: Proceedings of a symposium on switch reference and universal grammar, Winnipeg, May 1981, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1992 The grammar of referential coherence as mental processing instructions. In Norbert Dittmar (ed.), Topic: special issue of Linguistics, 301: 5–56.Google Scholar
2001 Syntax: An introduction. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2017 The story of zero. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, Adele E.
2006 Constructions at work: The nature of generalization in Language. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gundel, Jeanette K., Nancy Hedberg, & Ron Zacharski
1993 Cognitive status and the form of referring expressions in discourse. Language 69(2): 274–307. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Harris, Alice C.
2016 Multiple exponence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hashimoto, Daiki
2019 Sociolinguistic effects on loanword phonology: Topic in speech and cultural image. Laboratory phonology: Journal of the Association for Laboratory Phonology, 10(1): 11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Haspelmath, Martin
2013 Argument indexing: a conceptual framework for the syntactic status of bound person forms. In Dik Bakker & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), Languages across boundaries. Berlin: De Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2015 Defining vs. diagnosing linguistic categories: A case study of clitic phenomena. In Joanna Blaszczak, Dorota Klimek-Jankowska & Krzysztof Migdalski (eds.), How categorical are categories? Berlin: De Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2019 Indexing and flagging, and head and dependent marking. Te Reo: the Journal of the Linguistic Society of New Zealand 621: 62–93.Google Scholar
Hinrichs, Lars, Benedikt Szmrecsanyi & Axel Bohmann
2015 Which-hunting and the Standard English relative clause. Language 91(4): 806–36. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Holler, Anke & Katja Suckow
(eds.) 2016 Empirical Perspectives on Anaphora Resolution. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Holmberg, Anders, Aarti Nayudu, & Michelle Sheehan
2009 Three partial null-subject languages: A comparison of Brazilian Portuguese, Finnish and Marathi. Studia Linguistica, 63(1): 59–97. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hopper, Paul J. & Elizabeth C. Traugott
1993 Grammaticalization Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hothorn, Torsten & Brian S. Everitt
2006 A handbook of statistical analyses using R. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hothorn, Torsten, Kurt Hornik & Achim Zeileis
2006 Unbiased recursive partitioning: A conditional inference framework. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 15(3): 651–74. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Huang, C.-T. James
1984 On the distribution and reference of empty pronouns. Linguistic Inquiry 15(4): 531–74.Google Scholar
Huang, Yan
2000 Anaphora: A cross-linguistic approach. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ichinose, Atsushi
1993 Evolução da expressão equacional no kriol da Guiné-Bissau. PAPIA – Revista Brasileira de Estudos do Contato Linguístico 3(2): 23–31.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Bart
2010 Upper Guinea Creole: Evidence in favor of a Santiago birth. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 25(2). 289–343. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, Bart & Nicolas Quint
2016 On the relevance of Classical Portuguese features in four Atlantic creoles. In Armin Schwegler, John McWhorter & Liane Ströbel (eds.), The Iberian Challenge. Iberoamericana Vervuert. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jelinek, Eloise
1984 Empty categories, case, and configurationality. Natural language & linguistic theory 2(1): 39–76. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kari, Ethelbert E.
2017 On the status of subject markers in African languages. Studies in Linguistics, (44): 99–134. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kassambara, Alboukadel
2018 Machine learning essentials: Practical guide in R. STHDA.Google Scholar
Kato, Mary A.
1999 Strong and weak pronominals in the null subject parameter. Probus, 11(1): 1–38. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kato, Mary A. & Maria Eugênia L. Duarte
2005 (Micro)parametric variation between European Portuguese (EP) and Brazilian Portuguese (BP): Similarities and Differences Related to Ongoing Changes in Latin American Spanish. Presented at the Asociación de linguística y filología de América Latina . Monterrey, MX.
Kayne, Richard S.
1975 French syntax: The transformational cycle. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Kibrik, Andrej A.
2011 Reference in Discourse. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kroch, Anthony
1994 Morphosyntactic variation. In Katharine Beals, (ed.), Papers from the 30th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society: Parasession on Variation and Linguistic Theory, 180–201. Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society.Google Scholar
Kouwenberg, Silvia
1990 Complementizer PA, the finiteness of its complements and some remarks on empty categories in Papiamento. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 5(1): 39–51. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1994 A grammar of Berbice Dutch Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lang, Jürgen
2012 A filiação dos pronomes pessoais do crioulo da ilha de Santiago (Cabo Verde). Journal of Ibero-Romance Creoles 3: 16.Google Scholar
Lehmann, Christian
1982 Universal and typological aspects of agreement. In Seiler, H. & Stachowiak, F.J. (eds.), Apprehension. Vol. II1. Tübingen: Gunter Narr; 201–267.Google Scholar
Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson
1976 Subject and topic: A new typology of language. In Charles N. Li (ed.), Subject and topic, 457–89. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Lipski, John
1999 Null subjects in (Romance-derived) creoles: routes of evolution. Presented at the Society for Pidgin & Creole Languages, Los Angeles, California.
Lüdecke, Daniel
2019 sjPlot: Data Visualization for Statistics in Social Science, https://​CRAN​.R​-project​.org​/package​=sjPlot.
Maurer, Philippe
1988 Les modifications temporelles et modales du verbe dans le papiamento de Curaçao (Antilles néerlandaises): avec une anthologie et un vocabulaire papiamento-français. Hamburg: H. Buske.Google Scholar
Mayol, Laia
2010 Contrastive pronouns in null-subject Romance languages. Lingua 120(10): 2497–2514. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McKaughan, Howard P.
1954 Notes on Chabacano grammar. Journal of East Asiatic Studies 31: 205–26.Google Scholar
McKee, Rachel, Adam Schembri, David McKee, & Trevor Johnston
2011 Variable “subject” presence in Australian Sign Language and New Zealand Sign Language. Language Variation and Change 23(3): 375–98. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meyerhoff, Miriam
2000 Constraints on null subjects in Bislama (Vanuatu): social and linguistic factors. Canberra: The Australian National University.Google Scholar
2009 Replication, transfer, and calquing: Using variation as a tool in the study of language contact. Language Variation and Change 21(3): 297–317. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S.
1988 The small pro and inflectional morphology. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 13(1): 213–213. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Naimi, Babak, Nicholas A. S. Hamm, Thomas A. Groen, Andrew K. Skidmore, & Albertus G. Toxopeus
2014 Where is positional uncertainty a problem for species distribution modelling? Ecography, 37(2): 191–203. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Orozco, Rafael
2018 El castellano del Caribe colombiano en la ciudad de Nueva York: El uso variable de sujetos pronominales. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone linguistics 11(1): 89–129. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Otheguy, Ricardo & Ana Celia Zentella
2012 Spanish in New York: Language Contact, Dialectal Leveling, and Structural Continuity. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pickering, Martin J. & Ferreira, Victor S.
2008 Structural Priming: A Critical Review. Psychological bulletin 134(3): 427–59. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Poletto, Cecilia
2000 The Higher Functional Field: Evidence from Northern Italian Dialects. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Poletto, Cecilia & Christina Tortora
2016 Subject clitics: syntax. In Adam Ledgeway & Martin Maiden (eds.), The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages, 772–85. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Posio, Pekka
2013 The expression of first-person-singular subjects in spoken Peninsular Spanish and European Portuguese: Semantic roles and formulaic sequences. Folia Linguistica 47(1): 253–92. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2014 Subject expression in grammaticalizing constructions: The case of creo and acho “I think” in Spanish and Portuguese. Journal of Pragmatics 631: 5–18. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Powell, M. J. D.
2009 The BOBYQA algorithm for bound constrained optimization without derivatives. Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Cambirdge University.Google Scholar
Pratas, Fernanda
2004 O Sistema Pronominal Do Caboverdiano (Variante de Santiago): Questões de Gramática. Lisboa: Edições Colibri.Google Scholar
Pu, Ming-Ming
1997 Zero anaphora and grammatical relations in Mandarin. In Talmy Givón (ed.), Grammatical Relations: a functionalist perspective, 281–321. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Quint, Nicolas
2000a Grammaire de la langue cap-verdienne: étude descriptive et compréhensive du créole afro-portugais des Iles du Cap-Vert. Paris: Harmattan.Google Scholar
2000b Le cap-verdien: origines et devenir d’une langue métisse: étude des relations de la langue cap-verdienne avec les langues africaines, créoles et portugaise. Paris, France: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
2004 Interacções morfológicas entre verbo e objecto no crioulo da ilha de Santiago (República de Cabo Verde), Papia, 71–83.Google Scholar
2011 Le devenir du -/r/ de l’infinitif portugais en capverdien santiagais moderne, In Ariane Despote and Gilbert Fabre (eds.), Aspects actuels de la linguistique ibéro-romane – Actes du XIe Colloque international de Linguistique ibéro-romane, Paris 13 – Villetaneuse (5–7 octobre 2006), 191–200. Limoges, France: Lambert-Lucas.Google Scholar
2012 Les influences du portugais contemporain sur le système verbal du capverdien santiagais. In Claudine Chamoreau & Laurence Goury (eds.), Changement linguistique et langues en contact: approches plurielles du domaine prédicatif, 155–178. Paris: CNRS.Google Scholar
2015 Let’s Speak Capeverdean: Language and Culture. London: Battlebridge Publications.Google Scholar
R Core Team
2019 The R Project for Statistical Computing.Google Scholar
Renzi, Lorenzo & Laura Vanelli
1983 I pronomi soggetto in alcune varietà romanze. In Piaza Piacini (ed.), Scritti Linguistici in onore di G.B. Pellegrini, 121–45.Google Scholar
Rizzi, Luigi
1986 On the status of subject clitics in Romance. In Osvaldo A. Jaeggli & Carmen Silva-Corvalán (eds.) Studies in Romance linguistics. Dordrecht, ND: Foris. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Roberge, Yves
1990 Syntactic recoverability of null arguments. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press.Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Riccelli, Adrián
2019 The Subject Domain in Cabo-Verdean Creole: Combining variationist sociolinguistics and formal approaches. The University of Texas at Austin dissertation.Google Scholar
Schröter, Verena
2019 Null Subjects in Englishes: A Comparison of British English and Asian Englishes. Null Subjects in Englishes. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shin, Naomi Lapidus
2014 Grammatical complexification in Spanish in New York: 3sg pronoun expression and verbal ambiguity. Language variation and change 26(3): 303–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Siewierska, Anna
1999 From anaphoric pronoun to grammatical agreement marker: Why objects don’t make it. Folia Linguistica, 33(1–2).Google Scholar
2001 On the argument status of cross-referencing forms: Some problems. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, (42): 215–36.Google Scholar
2004 Person. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Siewierska, Anna & Dik Bakker
2005 The agreement cross-reference continuum: Person marking in FG. In Kees Hengeveld & Casper de Groot (eds.), Morphosyntactic Expression in Functional Grammar. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Silva, Claudia R. T.
2013 Comportamento e natureza dos sujeitos duplicados no crioulo caboverdiano e no português falado em comunidades quilombolas. In M. D. D. Moura & M. A. Silbado (eds.), Para a história do português brasileiro: Sintaxe comparativa entre o português brasileiro e línguas crioulas de base lexical portuguesa, 167–206. Maceió: EDUFAL.Google Scholar
Silva, Claudia R. T., Danniel Carvalho, & Fernanda M. Ziober
2016 Traços de pessoa e duplos sujeitos no português. Presented at XXXI Econtro nacional da ANPOLL GT– Teoria da Gramática . Campinas, São Paolo.
2017 Licenciamento de duplos sujeitos em variedades do português: pessoa, definitude e estrutura de traços. Letras Escreve 7(2): 91. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Silva, Claudia R. T. & Fernanda M. Ziober
2017 Sobre os sujeitos pré-verbais duplicados: uma análise contrastiva entre o português vernacular brasileiro, o caboverdiano e o santomé. Estudos linguísticos e literários 571: 164–85. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Silva, Izione Santos
1990 Tense and aspect in Capeverdean Crioulo. In John Victor Singler (ed.), Pidgin and Creole Tense/Mood/Aspect Systems, 143–168. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sippola, Eeva
2011 Una gramática descriptiva del chabacano de Ternate, University of Helsinki dissertation.Google Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, Anne-Laure Boulesteix, Thomas Kneib, Thomas Augustin, & Achim Zeileis
2008 Conditional variable importance for random forests. BMC Bioinformatics 9(1): 307. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, Anne-Laure Boulesteix, Achim Zeileis, & Torsten Hothorn
2007 Bias in random forest variable importance measures: Illustrations, sources and a solution. BMC Bioinformatics 8(1): 25. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Syea, Anand
1993 Null subject in Mauritian Creole and the Pro-Drop Parameter. In Francis Byrne & John Holm (eds.), Atlantic Meets Pacific: A global view of pidginization and creolization, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Szmrecsanyi, Benedikt
2005 Language users as creatures of habit: A corpus-based analysis of persistence in spoken English. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 1(1). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2008 Morphosyntactic persistence in spoken English: A corpus study at the intersection of variationist sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and discourse analysis. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Tavares, Bernadino
2012 The verbal system of the Cape Verdean Creole of Tarrafal, Santiago: A semantic analysis of the tense, mood and aspect markers. Universidade de Coimbra dissertation.Google Scholar
Torrence, Harold
2013 The clause structure of Wolof: Insights into the left periphery. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Torres Cacoullos, Rena & Catherine E. Travis
2010 Variable Yo expression in New Mexico: English influence? In Susana Rivera-Mills & Daniel Villa Crésap (eds.), Spanish of the U.S. southwest: A language in transition, 189–210. Madrid/Frankfurt: Iberoamericana Vervuert. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2011 Testing convergence via code-switching: priming and the structure of variable subject expression. International Journal of Bilingualism 15(3): 241–67. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2014 Prosody, priming and particular constructions: The patterning of English first-person singular subject expression in conversation. Journal of Pragmatics, 631: 19–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2019 Variationist typology: Shared probabilistic constraints across (non-)null subject languages. Linguistics 57(3): 653–92. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Travis, Catherine E.
2007 Genre effects on subject expression in Spanish: Priming in narrative and conversation. Language Variation and Change 19(2): 101–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Travis, Catherine E. & Amy M. Lindstrom
2016 Different registers, different grammars? Subject expression in English conversation and narrative. Language Variation and Change 28(1): 103–28. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vainikka, Anne & Yonata Levy
1999 Empty subjects in Finnish and Hebrew. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 17(3): 613–71. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Van Valin, Robert D.
2005 Exploring the syntax-semantics interface. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Van Valin, Robert D. & Randy J. LaPolla
1997 Syntax: Structure, meaning, and function. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Veiga, Manuel
1996 O crioulo de Cabo Verde: introdução à gramática. Instituto Caboverdeano do Livro e do Disco.Google Scholar
2002 O caboverdiano em 45 lições: estudo sociolinguístico e gramatical. Praia, Cape Verde: INIC.Google Scholar
Venables, W. N. & B. D. Ripley
2002 Modern applied statistics with S.. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wagner, Susanne
2016 Never saw one – first-person null subjects in spoken English. English Language and Linguistics 22(1): 1–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wickham, Hadley
2016 Ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. New York: Springer-Verlag. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wratil, Melani
2009 Null arguments and homonymy flight in the development of Creole pronoun systems, In Peter K. Austin, Oliver Bond, Monik Charette, David Nathan, & Peter Sells (eds.), Language Documentation & Linguistic Theory (2). 301–312. London: SOAS.Google Scholar
2011 Uncovered pro – On the development and identification of null subjects. In Null Pronouns, Melani Wratil & Peter Gallmann (eds). Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Xia, Ting
2018 Visual processing of Chinese characters by foreign language learners. Ottawa, Ontario: Carleton University Masters’ thesis. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zribi-Hertz, Anne
1994 La syntaxe des clitiques nominatifs en français standard et en français avancé. Travaux de Linguistique et de Philologie, 321: 131–48.Google Scholar
Zribi-Hertz, Anne & Lamine Diagne
2002 Clitic placement after syntax: Evidence from Wolof person and locative markers. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, 621.Google Scholar
Zwicky, Arnold M. & Pullum, Geoffrey K.
1983 Cliticization vs. inflection: English N’T. Language 59(3): 502. DOI logoGoogle Scholar