Cover not available
Article published In:
Current State of Second Language Studies in Japan
Edited by John Matthews and Shigenori Wakabayashi
[Journal of Second Language Studies 6:2] 2023
► pp. 238–265

Development of EFL reading rate in adolescents in Japan

A longitudinal study

ORCID logo | Nagoya University , Japan
| Prefectural University of Hiroshima , Japan
| Kurume University , Japan

This longitudinal study employed latent growth curve modeling to investigate the development of EFL reading rate in a sample of L1-Japanese adolescents from Grade 9 to 11. It also examined the contributions of four components (word recognition, phonological processing, orthographic processing and vocabulary breadth) to the reading rate with word recognition as a mediator. The growth trajectory was non-linear with steeper gains between Grades 9 and 10 than Grades 10 and 11. The components contributed to the reading rate in complex ways, either directly or through the mediation of word recognition. Although some catching up by slower readers was observed, the advantage the faster readers had at the outset remained after two years, indicating the importance of the achievement levels at early stages for later development.

Keywords: reading rate, EFL, longitudinal, secondary school, adolescent, latent growth curve modeling, word recognition, phonological processing, orthographic processing, vocabulary
Article outline
  • Introduction
    • Reading rate
    • Developmental patterns of reading ability
    • Components of reading rate
    • Longitudinal, component approaches to the acquisition of L2 reading
    • The present study
  • Method
    • Participants
    • Materials
      • Reading rate
      • Vocabulary breadth
      • Word recognition, phonological processing, and orthographic processing
    • Procedure
    • Analysis
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Conclusion
  • References
Published online: 27 February 2024
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.22005.yam
References
Anderson, N. J.
(2018) Silent reading fluency. In J. I. Liontas (Ed.), The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (on-line): John Wiley & Sons. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Beglar, D., & Hunt, A.
(2014) Pleasure reading and reading rate gains. Reading in a Foreign language, 26 (1), 29–48.Google Scholar
Beglar, D., Hunt, A., & Kite, Y.
(2012) The effect of pleasure reading on Japanese university EFL learners’ reading rates. Language Learning, 62 (3), 665–703. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J.
(2006) Latent curve models: A structural equation perspective. John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M.
(2019) How many words do we read per minute? A review and meta-analysis of reading rate. Journal of Memory and Language, 109 1, 1–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. B., & White, M. N.
(1973) Word frequency and age of acquisition as determiners of picture-naming latency. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25 1, 85–95. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carver, R. P.
(1990) Reading rate: A review of research and theory. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
(2000) The causes of high and low reading achievement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cho, E., Capin, P., Roberts, G., Roberts, G. J., & Vaughn, S.
(2019) Examining sources and mechanisms of reading comprehension difficulties: Comparing English learners and non-English Learners within the simple view of reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111 (6), 982–1000. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Choi, W., Lowder, M. W., Ferreira, F., & Henderson, J. M.
(2015) Individual differences in the perceptual span during reading: Evidence from the moving window technique. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 77 (7), 2463–2475. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, A. E., Nathan, R. G., & Raher, K. S.
(2011) Orthographic processing in models of word recognition. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research. Volume IV (Vol. IV1, pp. 259–285). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dirix, N., Vander Beken, H., De Bruyne, E., Brysbaert, M., & Duyck, W.
(2020) Reading text when studying in a second language: An eye-tracking study. Reading Research Quarterly, 55 (3), 371–397. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L. C.
(2014) Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18 1, 5–21. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, A. W., & Lambon Ralph, M. A.
(2000) Age of acquisition effects in adult lexical processing reflect loss of plasticity in maturing systems: Insights from connectionist networks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26 1, 1103–1123. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Farnia, F., & Geva, E.
(2013) Growth and predictors of change in English language learners’ reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 36 (4), 389–421. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fujita, K.
(2010) Nihonjinkoukousei niokeru eibundokkai no konponentosukiru ni kansurukenkyu – konponentosukiru to yominohattatu, kojinsa no kousatsu – [A study of component skills of English reading of Japanese high school EFL learners: Componential models, reading development, and individual differences] PhD thesis, Nagoya University
Geva, E., & Yaghoub Zadeh, Z.
(2006) Reading efficiency in native English-speaking and English-as-a-second-language children: The role of oral proficiency and underlying cognitive-linguistic processes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10 1, 31–57. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grabe, W., & Yamashita, J.
(2022) Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice (second ed.): Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hancock, G. R., & Schoonen, R.
(2015) Structural equation modeling: Possibilities for language learning researchers. Language Learning, 65 (1), 160–184. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Haynes, M., & Carr, T.
(1990) Writing system background and second language reading: A component skills analysis of English reading by native speaker-readers of Chinese. In T. Carr & B. Levy (Eds.), Reading and its development: Component skills approaches (pp. 375–421). san Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hiebert, E. H., & Daniel, M.
(2019) Comprehension and rate during silent reading: Why do some students do poorly? Reading and Writing, 32(7) 1795–1818 DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hiebert, E. H., Wilson, K. M., & Trainin, G.
(2010) Are students really reading in independent reading contexts? An examination of comprehension-based silent reading rate. In E. H. Hiebert & D. R. Reutzel (Eds.), Revisiting silent reading: New directions for teachers and researchers (pp. 151–167). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hirai, A.
(1999) The Relationship between Listening and Reading Rates of Japanese EFL Learners. Modern Language Journal, 83 (3), 367–384. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Holmes, V. M.
(2009) Bottom-up processing and reading comprehension in experienced adult readers. Journal of Research in Reading, 32 (3), 309–326. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M.
(1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Huffman, J.
(2014) Reading rate gains during a one-semester extensive reading course. Reading in a Foreign language, 26(2), 17–33. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Iwahori, Y.
(2008) Developing reading fluency: A study of extensive reading in EFL. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20 (1), 70–91.Google Scholar
JACET Committee of Basic Words Revision, (Ed.)
(2003) JACET list of 8000 basic words: JACET 8000. Tokyo: JACET.Google Scholar
Jean, M., & Geva, E.
(2009) The development of vocabulary in English as a second language children and its role in predicting word recognition ability. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30 (1), 153–185. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Katagiri, K.
(2009) A three-year longitudinal study of vocabulary size in Japanese SHS students and a description of their developmental patterns. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 20 1, 131–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kato, S.
(2009) Suppressing inner speech in ESL reading: Implications for developmental changes in second language word recognition processes. Modern Language Journal, 93 (4), 471–488. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Katzir, T., Kim, Y., Wolf, M., O’Brien, B., Kennedy, B., Lovett, M., & Morris, R.
(2006) Reading fluency: The whole is more than the parts. Annals of Dyslexia, 56 1, 51–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kramer, B., & McLean, S.
(2019) L2 reading rate and word length: The necessity of character-based measurement. Reading in a Foreign Language 31 1, 201–225.Google Scholar
Krepel, A., Bree, E. H., Mulder, E., Ven, M., Segers, E., Verhoeven, L., & Jong, P. F.
(2021) The unique contribution of vocabulary in the reading development of English as a foreign language. Journal of Research in Reading, 44 (3), 453–474. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Logan, G. D.
(1992) Shapes of reaction-time distributions and shapes of learning curves: A test of the instance theory of automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18 (5), 883–914. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mancilla-Martinez, J., Kieffer, J. M., Biancarosa, G., Christodoulou, A. J., & Snow, E. C.
(2011) Investigating English reading comprehension growth in adolescent language minority learners: some insights from the simple view. Reading and Writing, 24, 339–354. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McLean, S., & Rouault, G.
(2017) The effectiveness and efficiency of extensive reading at developing reading rates. System, 70 1, 92–106. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mellard, D. F., Fall, E., & Woods, K. L.
(2010) A path analysis of reading comprehension for adults with low literacy. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43 (2), 154–165. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mirman, D.
(2017) Growth curve analysis and visualization using R. Chapman and Hall/CRC. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mochizuki, M.
(1998) nihonjin eigo gakushusha notameno goisaizutesuto [A vocabulary size test for Japanese learners of English]. The IRLT Bulletin, 12 1, 27–53.Google Scholar
Muraki, E.
(1992) A generalized partial credit model: Application of an EM algorithm. Applied Psychological Measurement 16 1, 159–176. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nakamoto, J., Lindsey, K. A., & Manis, F. R.
(2007) A longitudinal analysis of English language learners’ word decoding and reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 20 (7), 691–719. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H.
(2014) The role and importance of lower-level processes in second language reading. Language Teaching, 47 (01), 1–37. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H., & Geva, E.
(1999) The contribution of phonological and orthographic processing skills to adult ESL reading: Evidence from native speakers of Farsi. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20 1, 241–267. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J.
(2004) Beyond phonological skills: Broader language skills contribute to the development of reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 27 1, 342–356. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nisbet, K., Bertram, R., Erlinghagen, C., Pieczykolan, A., & Kuperman, V.
(2021) Quantifying the difference in reading fluency between L1 and L2 readers of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1–28. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nunes, T., Bryant, P., & Barros, R.
(2012) The development of word recognition and its significance for comprehension and fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (4), 959–973. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Olson, R. K., Kliegl, R., Davidson, B. J., & Foltz, G.
(1985) Individual and developmental differences in reading disability. In G. E. Mackinnon & T. G. Waller (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 41, pp. 1–64). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Oslund, E. L., Clemens, N. H., Simmons, D. C., & Simmons, L. E.
(2018) The direct and indirect effects of word reading and vocabulary on adolescents’ reading comprehension: Comparing struggling and adequate comprehenders. Reading and Writing, 31 (2), 355–379. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Palmer, J., MacLeod, C. M., Hunt, E., & Davidson, J. E.
(1985) Information processing correlates of reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 24 (1), 59–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A.
(2017) Lexical quality revisited. In E. Segers & P. van den Broek (Eds.), Developmental perspectives in written language and literacy (pp. 51–67). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L.
(2002) The lexical quality hypothesis. In L. Verhoeven, C. Elbro, & P. Reitsma (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pfost, M., Hattie, J., Dörfler, T., & Artelt, C.
(2014) Individual differences in reading development: A review of 25 years of empirical research on Matthew effects in reading. Review of Educational Research, 84 (2), 203–244. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
R Core Team
(2021) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. [URL]
Rayner, K., Schotter, E. R., Masson, M. E., Potter, M. C., & Treiman, R.
(2016) So much to read, so little time: How do we read, and can speed reading help? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17 (1), 4–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ricketts, J., Nation, K., & Bishop, D.
(2007) Vocabulary is important for some, but not all reading skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11 1, 235–257. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rose, H. T., & Rouhani, P.
(2012) Influence of verbal working memory depends on vocabulary: Oral reading fluency in adolescents with dyslexia. Mind, Brain, and Education, 6 (1–9). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rosseel, Y.
(2012) lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48 1, 1–36. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sáez, L., Nese, J. F. T., Alonzo, J., & Tindal, G.
(2016) Individual differences in kindergarten through grade 2 fluency relations. Learning and Individual Differences, 49 1, 100–109. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schoonen, R., van Gelderen, A., Stoel, R. D., Hulstijn, J. H., & De Glopper, K.
(2011) Modeling the development of L1 and EFL writing proficiency of secondary school students. Language Learning, 61 (1), 31–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Shimono, T.
(2018) L2 reading fluency progression using timed reading and repeated oral reading. Reading in a Foreign language, 30 (1), 152–179.Google Scholar
(2019) The dynamic cognitive processes of second language reading fluency. PhD thesis, Temple University.
Shiotsu, T.
(2010) Components of L2 reading: Linguistic and processing factors in the reading test performances of Japanese EFL learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, L. S., Share, D., & Geva, E.
(1995) Evidence for superior orthographic skills in dyslexics. American Psychological Society, 6 (4), 250–254. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sperlich, A., Meixner, J., & Laubrock, J.
(2016) Development of the perceptual span in reading: A longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 146 1, 181–201. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Spichtig, A. N., Hiebert, E. H., Vorstius, C., Pascoe, J. P., David Pearson, P., & Radach, R.
(2016) The decline of comprehension-based silent reading efficiency in the United States: A comparison of current data with performance in 1960. Reading Research Quarterly, 51 (2), 239–259. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E.
(1986) Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21 (4), 360–407. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
StataCorp
(2015) Stata Statistical Software: Release 14 1. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.Google Scholar
Suk, N.
(2017) The effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 52 (1), 73–89. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taguchi, E., Takayasu-Maass, M., & Gorsuch, G. J.
(2004) Developing reading fluency in EFL: How assisted repeated reading and extensive reading affect fluency development. Reading in a Foreign language, 16 (2), 70–96.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E.
(1965) Eye movements in reading: Facts and fallacies. American Educational Research Journal, 2 1, 187–202. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Frankenpohl, H., & Pettee, J. L.
(1960) Grade level norms for the components of the fundamental reading skills. EDL Research and Information Bulletin, 31, 22.Google Scholar
Tokyo Shoseki Co., Ltd.
(2011) New Horizon English Course 1 1, Tokyo Shoseki Co., Ltd.Google Scholar
Underwood, P., Myskow, G., & Hattori, T.
(2012) The effect of speed reading instruction on Japanese high school students’ English reading comprehension and vocabulary development. Journal of International Education Research, 8 1, 27–39. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
van Gelderen, A., Schoonen, R., de Glopper, K., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snellings, P., & Stevenson, M.
(2004) Linguistic knowledge, processing speed, and metacognitive knowledge in first- and second-language reading comprehension: A componential analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96 (1), 19–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
van Gelderen, A., Schoonen, R., Stoel, R. D., de Glopper, K., & Hulstijn, J. H.
(2007) Development of adolescent reading comprehension in language 1 and language 2: A longitudinal analysis of constituent components. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99 (3), 477–491. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yaghoub Zadeh, Z., Farnia, F., & Geva, E.
(2012) Toward modeling reading comprehension and reading fluency in English language learners. Reading and Writing, 25 1, 163–187. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Yamashita, J.
(2013) Word recognition subcomponents and passage level reading in a foreign language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25 (1), 51–70.Google Scholar