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Article published In:
Korean Linguistics
Vol. 20:1 (2024) ► pp.33–81

Another ‘language that failed’?

The beginnings of ‘Soviet’ Korean in the Russian Far East, 1922–1937

 | University of British Columbia
This paper examines the linguistic features of Korean-language publications issued in the Russian Far East (RFE) between 1922 and 1937, the year all Koreans in the RFE were deported to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, and tries to answer the questions “Can we speak of a separate ‘Soviet’ Korean written language, and if so, what were its defining characteristics?” Moreover, “If there was a ‘Soviet’ Korean written language, or at least the appearances of such, was this by design or by accident?” In order to answer these questions, the paper examines published materials in Korean from the RFE alongside metalinguistic statements about the Korean language and Korean language policy penned by relevant Korean intellectuals and Soviet commentators.
The main argument is that we can indeed detect an incipient case of ‘language making’ and the beginnings of a distinct ‘Soviet Korean’ written language congealing in the years leading up to the deportation of 1937. But this was more by accident than by design, and owed on the one hand to the peculiar constellation of language policies, Soviet Korean language and orthographic ideologies, and Korean dialect facts in the RFE, and on the other hand to the relative shallowness of Korean language standardization on the peninsula itself.
Any further developments in the way of Soviet Korean ‘language making’ were nipped in the bud by the deportation of 1937 and the discontinuation of Korean language education in schools from 1938. As a result, written Soviet Korean ceased to exist, and spoken Soviet Korean – Koryŏmal – became completed “unroofed”; the Soviet Koreans became a “rag doll nation” within the USSR, and spoken Soviet Korean/Koryŏmal became a “rag doll language.”
Keywords: Koryŏmal, ‘Soviet Korean’, language making, Soviet nationalities policy, collateral languages, pluricentric languages
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Background: Korean in colonial Korea and the RFE in the 1920s and 1930s
    • 2.1Korean in Japanese-ruled Korea
    • 2.2Korean in the Russian far east
  • 3.Was there a ‘Soviet’ Korean language?
    • 3.1Linguistic features of ‘Soviet’ Korean in the RFE
      • A.Phonetics and phonology
        • Consonantism
          • Lack of ‘p’‑lenition
          • Velar palatalization
        • Vocalism
          • The writing of uy ㅢ
          • Preservation of u ㅡ after coronals
          • Lack of umlaut
      • B.Morpho-Syntax
        • Dialect features in nominal morphology
          • Vowel-initial suffix forms on vowel-final nouns
          • Dative talye 다려 = SS tele 더러
        • Dialect features in verbal morphology
          • Causative morphology
          • Passives
          • Final aspirates
          • Negation
        • Non-final endings
        • Sentence-final endings
          • Forms built on the copula
          • Sentence-final futures
      • C.Lexicon
        • Dialect shapes
          • Examples which preserve -s‑ ‑ㅅ‑ = SS -Ø- < MK -z‑
          • Affixation of suffix ‑i 이
          • Preservation of -k‑ = SS -Ø- < *-g‑
          • Other dialect words and expressions
      • D.Orthography
      • E.Soviet Korean in print, illustrated
  • 4.Metalinguistic discussions of Korean in the RFE
    • 4.1An official grammar for ‘Soviet’ Korean
    • 4.2Other metalinguistic discussions of ‘Soviet’ Korean in the RFE
  • 5.A failed ‘revolution in Korean writing’: Latinization
  • 6.So what was the end result?
    • Sociolinguistic typology of Soviet Korean
  • 6.How planned was Soviet Korean?
  • 7.Conclusions: “Language making” interrupted?
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Works cited
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at [email protected].

Published online: 30 May 2024
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/kl.00007.kin
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Yŏnhaedo Kyoyukpu [Maritime Region Department of Education] (eds.). 1927. Pulgŭn ai: Sae tokpon. Tye 3 kwŏn [Red child: New reader. Volume 3]. Top of front cover reads: Wŏndong Roryŏk Hakkyo [Far East Labor Schools]. 265 pages. Sinographs throughout. Hapalopssŭkhŭ/Vladivostok 브라지보쓰또크: Tosŏ Chusik Hoesa/Akt. O-vo Knizhnoe Delo. (Back cover missing)(“PA27”).Google Scholar
1929
Ri, Pp. P’. 李 ㅃ. ㅍ., O Sangil 吳相逸 and O Ch’anghwan 吳昌煥. 1929. Sae Tokpon (Charan.i ŭi) Che il kwŏn che i p’an [New reader (for adults), Volume 1, second edition] [Russian title: Bukvar’ dlia vzroslykh (na Koreiskom iazyke). Chast’ I, izdanie vtoroe]. 40 pages. Hapalopssŭkhŭ/Khabarovsk: “K’ŭnisŭnoyejello”/Knizhnoe Delo Tirazh: 28,000. Price: 25 kop. (“NB29”).Google Scholar
Ri, Pp. P’. 李 ㅃ. ㅍ. [Ni Pavel], O Sangil 吳相逸 [O Sanir] and O Ch’anghwan 吳昌煥 [O Chankhvan]. 1929. Sae Tokpon (Charan.i ŭi) Che 2 kwŏn, che 2 p’an [New reader (for adults), Volume 2, second edition] [Russian title: Novyi Bukvar’ dlia vzroslykh. Chast’ II, izdanie 2-e]. 98 pages. Hapalopssŭkhŭ/Khabarovsk: “K’ŭnisŭnoyejello”/Knizhnoe Delo Tirazh: 28,000. Price: 72 kop. (“NB29”).Google Scholar
Habaropsŭk’ŭ Imin’guk [Khabarovskaia Pereselencheskaia Partiia]. 1929. Koryŏ imin chinam: Habaropsŭk’ŭ sinjinsŭk’ŭ kuyŏk kwa Kkurŭttarŭginsŭk’ŭ kuyŏk ŭi hyŏngp’yŏn kwa isahanŭn pangbŏp e tae hayŏ [Korea immigration guide: Concerning conditions in the Kur-dorginsk and Sindinsk regions and how to immigrate] [Russian title: Chto nuzhno znat’ Koreitsu pereselentsu. Opisanie Kur-dorginskogo i Sindinskogo raionov v Khabarovskom okruge i pravila pereseleniia]. 59 pages. Khabarovsk. Tirazh: 3,000. (“KI29”).Google Scholar
Ri Pyŏngguk [Ni, P.], O Sangil [Ogai, T.], O Ch’anghwan [Ochankhvan, N.], Osselletikko I. 오쎄ᄙᅦ디꼬 이. [Oseled’ko, N.], Yugai Ss. A. [Iugai, S.], Ccoi Ya Zh. 쪼이야 ᅈ[Tsoi, Ia.], T’ae Insu [Tkhai, S.]. 1929. Sae Hakkyo. Tokpon. Tye 1-kwŏn, tye 1-p’yŏn [New school: A reader. Volume one, part one] [R. title: Novaia shkola: Pervaia kniga Koreiskogo shkol’nika]. Khabarovsk: Tosŏ Chusikhoesa/”Knizhnoe Delo.” 79 pages + “From the authors” at the back (p. 80). Tirazh: 10,000. Price: 50 kop. “From the authors” on page 80 and dated “August 1929” is full of sinographs. (“SH29”).Google Scholar
1929. Sae Hakkyo. Tye 4-kwŏn [New school. Volume 4] [R. title: Novaia shkola: Rabochaia kniga dlia 4-go goda obucheniia]. Habaropsŭk’ŭ/Khabarovsk: Tosŏ Chusikhoesa “K’ŭnisŭnoyejello”/”Knizhnoe Delo.” 211 pages + TOC. Tirazh: 4,000. Back cover missing. Full of sinographs. (“SH29”).Google Scholar
1930
O Ch’anghwan 吳昌煥 [Ochankhvan]. 1930. Koryŏ munjŏn: Kyowŏn ch’amgo-yong 高麗文典 [A grammar of Korean: For reference by instructors] [Russian title: Koreiskaia grammatika]. Preface (緖言, pp. 3–5), 6–102 + TOC. Khabarovsk: Dal’nevostochnoe Kraevoe Izdatel’stvo/“K’ŭnisŭnoyejello.” Tirazh: 1,500. Price: 1 rub.Google Scholar
1932
O Sŏngmuk [Osenmuk] = OZbNMUG. 1932. LATINHWAHAN GORJb GR CHbZ GbRYM (3ARANI YI) [First Steps in Latinized Korean (for Adults)]. 라ᄶᅵᆫ화한 고려글 자란이독본 [R. title: Latinizirovannyi Koreiskii Bukvar’ (dlia vzroslykh). 16 pp. Moscow: Izd. VTsK Novogo Alvavita. Moskva. Tirazh: 10000.Google Scholar
Ke Pongu [Ge-Bonu]. Edited by Li Gvan. Proofread by Nassŭkkobŭ. Technical editor Kim Sen-khi. 1932. Koryŏŏ Kyogwasŏ: Kkolhojŭ ch’ŏngnyŏn hakkyo ilhangnyŏn-yong [Korean Language Textbook: For Use in the First Class of Kolkhoz Elementary Schools)]. [R. title: Uchebnik Koreiskogo Iazyka dlia 1 goda obucheniia ShKM ]. 146 pp. + TOC. Vladivostok: Wŏndong Kungnip Ch’ulp’anbu/Dal’giz. Tirazh: 5,000. Price: 1 rub. 75 kop. (Has sinographs.)Google Scholar
1934
O Ch’anghwan (O Chan Khvan). Edited by Osenmuk. Technical editors Pak A. and Li En-dia. 1934a. Chosŏnŏ Kyogwasŏ (Munpŏp mit Chŏngsŏpŏp). Sosikcha Hakkyo-yong [Korean Language Textbook (Grammar and Orthography). For Use in Adult Schools] [Russian title:Uchebnik Koreiskogo iazyka (Grammatika i pravopisanie) dlia shkol malogramotnykh]. Moskva-Khabarovsk: Ryŏnhap Kungnip Ch’ulp’anbu~Wŏndong Kungnip Ch’ulp’anbu/Dal’nevostochnoe Kraevoe Izdatel’stvo. 142 pp. Tirazh: 18,000. Price: 1 rub. 10 kop. The inside cover lists the editor as Osenmuk (O Sŏngmuk).Google Scholar
1935
O Ch’anghwan [O Chan-khvan]. 1935a. Chungdŭng hakkyo Chosŏnŏ Munpŏp Kyogwasŏ. 1 kwŏn (P’umsa-ron). Che 5-hangnyŏn-yong. Sujŏng Chaep’an [Middle school Korean grammar textbook. Vol. 1 (Morphology). For use in the 5th Grade. Revised edition] [Russian title: Uchebnik Koreiskogo iazyka. Dlia srednei shkoly piatogo klassa obucheniia. Chast’ pervaia. Grammatika (morfologiia). 2-e izdanie. 136 pp. Tirazh: 4120. Moscow-Khabarovsk.Google Scholar
1936
Kim, Ch’ŏlsan. 1936. Mal kwa kŭl ŭl minjung e kakkapke [Bringing speech and writing closer to the masses]. Ap’ŭro no. 1–2 (5): 68–76. Moscow.Google Scholar