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Article published In:
Aging and Bilingualism
Edited by Ellen Bialystok and Margot D. Sullivan
[Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6:1/2] 2016
► pp. 205–226
Article

The impact of bilingualism on cognitive ageing and dementia

Finding a path through a forest of confounding variables

| University of Edinburgh, UK

Within the current debates on cognitive reserve, cognitive ageing and dementia increasingly showing a positive effect of mental, social and physical activities on health in older age, bilingualism remains one of the most controversial issues. Some reasons for it might be social or even ideological. However, one of the most important genuine problems facing bilingualism research is the high number of potential confounding variables. Bilingual communities often differ from monolingual ones in a range of genetic and environmental variables. In addition, within the same population, bilingual individuals could be different from the outset from those who remain monolingual. We discuss the most common confounding variables in the study of bilingualism, aging and dementia, such as group heterogeneity, migration, social factors, differences in general intelligence and the related issue of reverse causality. We describe different ways in which they can be minimised by the choice of the studied populations and the collected data. In this way, the emerging picture of the interaction between bilingualism and cognitive aging becomes more complex, but also more convincing.

Keywords: Cognitive ageing, dementia, confounding variables
Article outline
  • 1.Languages versus pills: Why bilingualism matters in current ageing and dementia research
  • 2.Immigrants, outcasts and elites: Differences between mono- and bilingual populations
  • 3.Chickens, eggs and reverse causality: Individual differences within the same population
  • 4.Competence, performance and exercise: Linguistics meets medicine
  • 5.Pride and prejudice: Who is afraid of bilingualism?
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
Published online: 25 January 2016
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.15002.bak
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2019. Sequential Multilingualism and Cognitive Abilities: Preliminary Data on the Contribution of Language Proficiency and Use in Different Modalities. Behavioral Sciences 9:9 ► pp. 92 ff. DOI logo
Costa, Ana S., Regina Jokel, Alberto Villarejo, Sara Llamas-Velasco, Kimiko Domoto-Reilley, Jennifer Wojtala, Kathrin Reetz & Álvaro Machado
2019. Bilingualism in Primary Progressive Aphasia. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders 33:1 ► pp. 47 ff. DOI logo
Cox, Jessica G & Gian M Zlupko
2019. Individual differences in language experience and bilingual autobiographical memory. International Journal of Bilingualism 23:5 ► pp. 1180 ff. DOI logo
DeLuca, Vincent, Jason Rothman, Ellen Bialystok & Christos Pliatsikas
2019. Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116:15 ► pp. 7565 ff. DOI logo
Haft, Stephanie L., Olga Kepinska, Jocelyn N. Caballero, Manuel Carreiras & Fumiko Hoeft
2019. Attentional Fluctuations, Cognitive Flexibility, and Bilingualism in Kindergarteners. Behavioral Sciences 9:5 ► pp. 58 ff. DOI logo
Heim, Stefan, Johanna Stumme, Nora Bittner, Christiane Jockwitz, Katrin Amunts & Svenja Caspers
2019. Bilingualism and “brain reserve”: a matter of age. Neurobiology of Aging 81 ► pp. 157 ff. DOI logo
Nickels, Lyndsey, Solène Hameau, Vishnu K. K. Nair, Polly Barr & Britta Biedermann
2019. Ageing with bilingualism: benefits and challenges. Speech, Language and Hearing 22:1 ► pp. 32 ff. DOI logo
Paplikar, Avanthi, Shailaja Mekala, Thomas H. Bak, Santosh Dharamkar, Suvarna Alladi & Subhash Kaul
2019. Bilingualism and the severity of poststroke aphasia. Aphasiology 33:1 ► pp. 58 ff. DOI logo
Van den Noort, Maurits, Katrien Vermeire, Peggy Bosch, Heike Staudte, Trudy Krajenbrink, Lars Jaswetz, Esli Struys, Sujung Yeo, Pia Barisch, Benoît Perriard, Sook-Hyun Lee & Sabina Lim
2019. A Systematic Review on the Possible Relationship Between Bilingualism, Cognitive Decline, and the Onset of Dementia. Behavioral Sciences 9:7 ► pp. 81 ff. DOI logo
Vega‐Mendoza, Mariana, Suvarna Alladi & Thomas H. Bak
2019. Dementia and Multilingualism. In The Handbook of the Neuroscience of Multilingualism, ► pp. 608 ff. DOI logo
Wong, Patrick C. M., Jinghua Ou, Celestina W. Y. Pang, Ling Zhang, Chi Shing Tse, Linda C. W. Lam & Mark Antoniou
2019. Language Training Leads to Global Cognitive Improvement in Older Adults: A Preliminary Study. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 62:7 ► pp. 2411 ff. DOI logo
Anderson, John A. E., Lorinda Mak, Aram Keyvani Chahi & Ellen Bialystok
2018. The language and social background questionnaire: Assessing degree of bilingualism in a diverse population. Behavior Research Methods 50:1 ► pp. 250 ff. DOI logo
Bialystok, Ellen
2018. Chapter 13. Bilingualism and executive function. In Bilingual Cognition and Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 54], ► pp. 283 ff. DOI logo
Calabria, Marco, Albert Costa, David W. Green & Jubin Abutalebi
2018. Neural basis of bilingual language control. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1426:1 ► pp. 221 ff. DOI logo
Calvo, Noelia, Agustín Ibáñez, Edinson Muñoz & Adolfo M. García
2018. A core avenue for transcultural research on dementia: on the cross‐linguistic generalization of language‐related effects in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 33:6 ► pp. 814 ff. DOI logo
Hervais-Adelman, Alexis, Natalia Egorova & Narly Golestani
2018. Beyond bilingualism: multilingual experience correlates with caudate volume. Brain Structure and Function 223:7 ► pp. 3495 ff. DOI logo
Mishra, Ramesh Kumar
2018. Cognitive Advantage of Bilingualism and Its Criticisms. In Bilingualism and Cognitive Control, ► pp. 67 ff. DOI logo
Mukadam, Naaheed, Fatima Jichi, David Green & Gill Livingston
2018. The relationship of bilingualism to cognitive decline: The Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 33:2 DOI logo
OOI, SEOK HUI, WINSTON D. GOH, ANTONELLA SORACE & THOMAS H. BAK
2018. From Bilingualism to Bilingualisms: Bilingual experience in Edinburgh and Singapore affects attentional control differently. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21:4 ► pp. 867 ff. DOI logo
Pot, Anna, Merel Keijzer & Kees De Bot
2018. Intensity of Multilingual Language Use Predicts Cognitive Performance in Some Multilingual Older Adults. Brain Sciences 8:5 ► pp. 92 ff. DOI logo
Anderson, John A.E., Somayya Saleemi & Ellen Bialystok
2017. Neuropsychological assessments of cognitive aging in monolingual and bilingual older adults. Journal of Neurolinguistics 43 ► pp. 17 ff. DOI logo
Antoniou, Mark & Sarah M. Wright
2017. Uncovering the Mechanisms Responsible for Why Language Learning May Promote Healthy Cognitive Aging. Frontiers in Psychology 8 DOI logo
Bak, Thomas H. & Ian Robertson
2017. Biology enters the scene—a new perspective on bilingualism, cognition, and dementia. Neurobiology of Aging 50 ► pp. iii ff. DOI logo
Mukadam, Naaheed, Andrew Sommerlad & Gill Livingston
2017. The Relationship of Bilingualism Compared to Monolingualism to the Risk of Cognitive Decline or Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 58:1 ► pp. 45 ff. DOI logo
Tomczak, Ewa & Dorota Jaworska-Pasterska
2017. Affective language processing and bilingualism: Complementary perspectives. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics 53:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Bak, Thomas H.
2016. Cooking pasta in La Paz. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6:5 ► pp. 699 ff. DOI logo
Bak, Thomas H.
2019. Chapter 6. Cooking pasta in La Paz. In Bilingualism, Executive Function, and Beyond [Studies in Bilingualism, 57], ► pp. 81 ff. DOI logo
Bak, Thomas H., Madeleine R. Long, Mariana Vega-Mendoza, Antonella Sorace & Philip Allen
2016. Novelty, Challenge, and Practice: The Impact of Intensive Language Learning on Attentional Functions. PLOS ONE 11:4 ► pp. e0153485 ff. DOI logo
Bialystok, Ellen, Jubin Abutalebi, Thomas H. Bak, Deborah M. Burke & Judith F. Kroll
2016. Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews 27 ► pp. 56 ff. DOI logo
Cox, Simon R., Thomas H. Bak, Michael Allerhand, Paul Redmond, John M. Starr, Ian J. Deary & Sarah E. MacPherson
2016. Bilingualism, social cognition and executive functions: A tale of chickens and eggs. Neuropsychologia 91 ► pp. 299 ff. DOI logo
Watson, Caitlin Wei-Ming, Jennifer J. Manly & Laura B. Zahodne
2016. Does bilingualism protect against cognitive aging?. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6:5 ► pp. 590 ff. DOI logo
Watson, Caitlin Wei-Ming, Jennifer J. Manly & Laura B. Zahodne
2019. Chapter 21. Does bilingualism protect against cognitive aging?. In Bilingualism, Executive Function, and Beyond [Studies in Bilingualism, 57], ► pp. 355 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 5 july 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.