Michael T. Putnam | Penn State University / Center for Language Science
Robert Klosinski | Penn State University / Center for Language Science
Although formal analyses of code-switching have enjoyed some success in determining which structures and interfaces are more
fertile environments for switches than others, research exposing recalcitrant counter-examples to proposed constraints and axioms
responsible for governing code-switching is abound. We advance the claim here that sub-optimal representations, i.e.,
losers, stand to reveal important information regarding the interaction of grammatical
principles and processing strategies of bilingual speakers and that any comprehensive analysis of code-switching phenomena should
include them. These losers are the result of gradient activation in both input and output forms. We demonstrate how the formalism
Gradient Symbolic Computation (GSC; Smolensky et al., 2014) can account for both of
these observed facets of bilingual grammars in a unified manner. Building upon the work of Goldrick et al. (2016a,b), we provide an analysis of mixed determiner phrases
(DPs) as an example of the fundamental components of a GSC-analysis.
(1992) Patterns of language mixing: A study of Turkish-Dutch bilingualism. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Badiola, L., Delgado, R., Sande, A., & Stefanich, S.
(2017) Code-switching attitudes and their effects on acceptability judgment tasks. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
Beatty-Martínez, A. & Dussias, P.
(2015) Mapping pictures, switching strategies: An analysis of code-switching production patterns. Poster. Programa Graduado de Lingüística: Universidad de Puerto Rico, Río Piedras.
Belazi, H. M., Rubin, E. J., & Toribio, A. J.
(1994) Code-switching and X-bar theory: The Functional Head Constraint. Linguistic Inquiry, 251, 221–237.
Bhatt, R.
(1997) Code-switching, constraints, and optimal grammars. Lingua, 1021, 223–251.
Bhatt, R.
(2014) Argument licensing in optimal switches. In: J. MacSwan (Ed.), Grammatical theory and bilingual codeswitching (pp. 135–158). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Broaders, S. C., Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S.
(2007) Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 136(4), 539–550.
Coetzee, A. W.
(2006) Variation as accessing ‘non-optimal’ candidates. Phonology, 23(3), 337–385.
Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S.
(2008) Gesturing makes learning fast. Cognition, 106(2), 1047–1058.
Costa, A., Caramazza, A., & Sebastián-Gallés, N.
(2000) The cognate facilitation effect: Implications for models of lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 261, 1283–1296.
Crocker, M. & Keller, F.
(2005) Probabilistic grammars as models of gradience in language processing. In: G. Fanselow, C. Féry, R. Vogel, & M. Schlesewsky (Eds.), Gradience in grammar: Generative perspectives (pp. 227–245). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
de Bot, K.
(2004) The multilingual lexicon: Modeling section and control. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11, 17–32.
Dell, G.
(1995) Speaking and missspeaking. In: L. R. Gleitman & M. Liberman (Eds.), An invitation to cognitive science (2nd edition) Volume 1: Language (pp. 183–208). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Deuchar, M. & Biberauer, T.
(2016) Doubling: An error or an illusion?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(5), 881–882.
Di Sciullo, A. M., Muysken, P., & Singh, R.
(1986) Government and code-mixing. Journal of Linguistics, 221, 1–24.
(2017) Monolingual stimuli and the analysis of code-switching. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
Featherston, S.
(2004) The decathlon model of empirical syntax. In: S. Kepser & M. Reis (Eds.), Linguistic evidence (pp. 187–208). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Goldin-Meadow, S. & Beilock, S. L.
(2010) Action’s influence on thought: The case of gesture. Perspectives of Psychological Science, 5(6), 664–674.
Goldrick, M.
(2011) Linking speech errors and generative phonological theory. Language and Linguistic Compass, 5/61, 397–412.
Goldrick, M., Putnam, M., & Schwarz, L.
(2016a) Coactivation in bilingual grammars: A computational account of code mixing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 857–876.
Goldrick, M., Putnam, M., & Schwarz, L.
(2016b) The future of code mixing research: Integrating psycholinguistic and formal grammatical theories. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 903–906.
Gollan, T. H., & Goldrick, M.
(2016) Grammar constraints on language switching: Control is not just executive control. Journal of Memory and Language, 901, 177–199.
Gullberg, M. & Parfita Couto, M. C.
(2016) An integrated perspective on code-mixing patterns beyond doubling?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 885–886.
Hartsuiker, R. J. & Pickering, M. J.
(2008) Language interaction in bilingual sentence production. Acta Psychologica, 1281, 479–489.
Van Hell, J., Cohen, C., & Grey, S.
(2016) Testing tolerance for lexically-specific factors in Gradient Symbolic Computation. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(5), 897–899.
Van Hell, J., Fernandez, C. B., Kootstra, G. J., Litcofsky, K. A., & Ting, C. Y.
(2017) Electrophysiological and experimental-behavioral approaches to the study of intra-sentential code-switching. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
Hernandez-Pina, F.
(1984) Teorías psicosociolingüísticas y su aplicación del español como lengua materna [Psycholinguistic theories and their application to the acquisition of Spanish as a native language]. Siglo XXI, Madrid.
Hermans, D., Bongaerts, T., de Bot, K., & Schreuder, R.
(1998) Producing words in a foreign language: Can speakers prevent interference from their first language?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11(3), 213–229.
(2002) Foundations of language: Brain, meaning, grammar, evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Joshi, A.
(1985) Processing of sentences with intrasentential code switching. In: D. R. Dowty, L. Karttunen, & A. M. Zwicky (Eds.) Natural language parsing: Psychological, computational and theoretical perspectives (pp. 190–205). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Keeler, F.
(2000) Gradience in grammar: Experimental and computational aspects of degrees of grammaticality. PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh.
Keeler, F.
(2003) A probabilistic parser as a model of global processing difficulty. In: R. Alterman & D. Kirsh (Eds.), Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 646–51). Boston.
Keller, F. & Asudeh, A.
(2002) Probabilistic learning algorithms and optimality theory. Linguistic Inquiry, 33(2), 225–44.
Kootstra, G. J.
(2015) A psycholinguistic perspective on code-switching: Lexical, structural, and socio-interactive processes. In: G. Stell & K. Yakpo (Eds.), Code-switching between structural and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 39–64). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
(2006) Language selectivity is the exception, not the rule: Arguments against a fixed locus of language selection in bilingual speech. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 91, 119–135.
Kroll, J. F., & Gollan, H.
(2014) Speech planning in two languages: What bilinguals tell us about language production. In M. Goldrick, V. Ferreira, & M. Miozzo (eds.) The Oxford handbook of language production (pp. 165–181). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Legendre, G., Miyata, Y., & Smolensky, P.
(1990) Harmonic Grammar – A formal multi-level connectionist theory of linguistic well-formedness: Theoretical foundations. In: Proceedings of the twelfth annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp. 388–395). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Legendre, G. & Schindler, M.
(2010) Code switching in Urban Wolof: A case for violable constraints in syntax. Revista Virtual de Estudos da Linguagem-ReVEL, 81, 47–75.
Legendre, G., Putnam, M., de Swart, H., & Zaroukian, E.
(2016) Introduction. In: G. Legendre, M. Putnam, H. de Swart, & E. Zaroukian (Eds.), Optimality-theoretic syntax, semantics, and pragmatics: From uni- to bi-direction optimization (pp. 1–31). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lillo-Martin, D., Müller de Quadros, R. & Pichler, D. C.
(2003) Competing activation in bilingual language processing: Within- and between-language competition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 61, 97–115.
(Eds) (2016) Harmonic grammar and harmonic serialism. London: Equinox.
Meilinger, A., Branigan, H. P., & Pickering, M. J.
(2014) Parallel processing in language production. Language, Cognition & Neuroscience, 291, 663–683.
Myers-Scotton, C.
(1993) Dueling languages: Grammatical structure in code-switching. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Muysken, P.
(2000) Bilingual speech: A typology of code-mixing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Muysken, P.
(2013) Language contact outcomes as the result of bilingual optimization strategies. Bilingualism. Language and Cognition, 161, 709–730.
Nishumura, M.
(1986) Inter-sentential code-switching: The case of language assignment. In: J. Vaid (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives (pp. 123–143). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
(2016) Predicting the unpredictable: Capturing the apparent semi-regularity of rendaku voicing in Japanese through Harmonic Grammar. In: E. Clem, V. Dawson, A. Shen, A. H. Skilton, G. Bacon, A. Cheng, & E. H. Maier (Eds.), Proceedings of the 42nd meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (pp. 135–150). Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
Rowland, C. F., Pine, J. M., Lieven, E., & Teakston, A.
(2005) The incidence of error in young children’s wh-questions. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48(2), 384–404.
Sankoff, D., Poplack, S., & Vannianiarajan, S.
(1990) The case of the nonce loan in Tamil. Language Variation and Change, 21, 71–101.
Smolensky, P., Goldrick, M., & Mathis, D.
(2014) Optimization and quantization in gradient symbol systems: A framework for integrating the continuous and the discrete in cognition. Cognitive Science, 381, 1102–1138.
Smolensky, P. & Goldrick, M.
(2016) Gradient Symbolic Representations in grammar: The case of French Liasion. ROA-1286: [URL] (Accessed, November 2, 2016).
Soriente, A.
(2007) Cross-linguistic and cognitive structures in the acquisition of wh-questions in an Indonesian-Italian bilingual child. In: I. Kecskes & L. Albertazzi (Eds.), Cognitive aspects of bilingualism (pp. 325–262). Dordrecht: Springer.
Smallwood, C.
(1997) Strong continuity, UG, and the Minimalist Program: An account of the optimal infinitive stage in child language. Unpublished manuscript. University of Toronto.
Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., López, L., Parafita Couto, M. C., & Párraga, C. A.
(2017) Using two-alternative forced choice tasks and Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment for acceptability judgments: Examining the Adjacency Condition in Spanish/English code-switched sentences. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(5).
Theakston, A. L., Lieven, E. V., Pine, J. M., & Rowland, C. F.
(2001) The role of performance limitations in the acquisition of verb-argument structure: An alternative account. Journal of Child Language, 28(1), 127–152.
(2006) Degraded acceptability and markedness in syntax, and the stochastic interpretation of Optimality Theory. In: G. Fanselow, C. Féry, R. Vogel, & M. Schlesewsky (Eds.), Gradience in grammar: Generative perspectives (pp. 246–269). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cited by
Cited by 4 other publications
Munarriz-Ibarrola, Amaia, Maria del Carmen Parafita Couto & Emma Vanden Wyngaerd
2019. Differential Access: Asymmetries in Accessing Features and Building Representations in Heritage Language Grammars. Languages 4:4 ► pp. 81 ff.
Putnam, Michael T., Matthew Carlson & David Reitter
2018. Integrated, Not Isolated: Defining Typological Proximity in an Integrated Multilingual Architecture. Frontiers in Psychology 8
Putnam, Michael T. & Åshild Søfteland
2022. Mismatches at the syntax-semantics interface: The case of non-finite complementation in American Norwegian. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 45:3 ► pp. 310 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 2 march 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.