The scope of even
Evidence from Mandarin Chinese
One of the issues in the study of even is concerned with the ambiguous scope interpretations contributed by the focus adverb even. There have been two main camps: the lexical approach and the scope approach. Unlike English, which does not have distinct lexical items for even, Mandarin Chinese (Chinese hereafter) utilizes two constructions to express the notion of even: (1) The lian … dou ‘including … all’ construction, and (2) focus adverbs, such as shenzhi. This paper aims to demonstrate that the lian … dou construction expresses the typical implicatures in even sentences predicted by the scope theory. The seemingly deviant cases that have been argued for a lexical NPI even by Rooth, however, either are not construed in lian … dou sentences or are possibly rendered in shenzhi sentences provided by the pragmatic accommodation of existential presuppositions. In particular, dou syntactically marks focus scope and quantifies over a focus domain consisting of the focused phrase and its alternatives in presupposition. The results of this study thus shed further light on the general discussion of even in the sense that: on the one hand, the scope theory can make the right predictions, as evidenced by lian … dou; and, on the other hand, pragmatic scalar inference of the existential implicatures should be taken into consideration. Ultimately the expression of even manifests interfaces of syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Ambiguity in even sentences
- 2.1The lexical theory
- 2.2The scope theory reinvented
- 3.Chinese lian … dou and shenzhi
- 4.The syntactic scope of lian … dou
- 4.1Scope marking of dou
- 4.2
Lian … dou in downward entailing context
- 4.3
Even-DP in non-finite complement clause
- 5.A discussion of existential presupposition
- 5.1
Even-
VP fixed scope?
- 5.2Lian … dou vs. shenzhi
- 5.3A residual issue on even in non-finite complement clause
- 5.4Focus range of shenzhi
-
6.Conclusion
-
Acknowledgements
- Notes
- Abbreviations
-
References
References
Altmann, Hans
1976 Die Gradpartikeln im Deutschen: Untersuchungen zu ihrer Syntax, Semantik und Pragmatik [
The gradparticles in German: Studies on their syntax, semantics and pragmatics
]. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Badan, Linda
2008 The even-construction in Mandarin. In
Djamouri, Redouane &
Meisterernst, Barbara &
Sybesma, Rint (eds.),
Chinese linguistics in Leipzig, 101–116. Paris: EHESS/CRLAO.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Badan, Linda & Del Gobbo, Francesca
2015 The even-construction and the low periphery in Mandarin Chinese. In
Tsai, Wei-Tien Dylan (ed.),
The cartography of Chinese syntax: The cartography of syntactic structures (
Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax), vol. 111, 33–74. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bennett, Jonathan
1982 Even if.
Linguistics and Philosophy 5(3). 403–418.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Berckmans, Paul
1993 The quantifier theory of “Even”.
Linguistics and Philosophy 16(6). 589–611.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cheng, Lisa Lai-Shen
1995 On dou-quantification.
Journal of East Asian Linguistics 4(3). 197–234.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cheng, Lisa Lai-Shen & Vicente, Luis
2013 Verb doubling in Mandarin Chinese.
Journal of East Asian Linguistics 22(1). 1–37.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Constant, Noah & Gu, Chloe C.
2010 Mandarin ‘even’, ‘all’ and the trigger of focus movement.
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics 16(1). (
Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Penn Linguistics Colloquium). 21–30.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fauconnier, Gilles
1975a Pragmatic scales and logical structures.
Linguistic Inquiry 61. 353–375.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fauconnier, Gilles
1975b Polarity and the scale principle. In
Grossman, Robin E. &
San, L. James &
Vance, Timothy J. (eds.),
Papers from the Eleventh Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 188–199. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Fillmore, Charles J. & Kay, Paul & O’Connor, Mary Catherine
1988 Regularity and idiomaticity in grammatical constructions: The case of let alone.
Language 64(3). 501–538.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Francescotti, Robert
1995 Even: The conventional implicature approach reconsidered.
Linguistics and Philosophy 18(2). 153–173.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gao, Qian
1994 Focus criterion: Evidence from Chinese. In
Camacho, José &
Choueiri, Lina (eds.),
Proceedings of the 6th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics, 51–73. Los Angeles: University of Southern California.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Giannakidou, Anastasia
2007 The landscape of EVEN.
Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 25(1). 39–81.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Giannakidou, Anastasia & Cheng, Lisa Lai-Shen
2006 (In)Definiteness, polarity, and the role of wh-morphology in free choice.
Journal of Semantics 231. 135–183.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Grano, Thomas Angelo
2013 Control without finiteness contrasts: PRO, aspect, and complementation size in Mandarin Chinese. (
[URL]) (Accessed 2016-08-23.)
Hasegawa, Nobuko
1991 Affirmative polarity items and negation in Japanese. In
Georgopoulos, Carol &
Ishihara, Roberta (eds.),
Interdisciplinary approaches to language: Essays in honor of S.-Y. Kuroda, 271–285. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hoeksema, Jack & Rullmann, Hotze
Hole, Daniel P.
2004 Focus and background marking in Mandarin Chinese: System and theory behind cái, jiù, dōu and yĕ. London: Routledge Curzon.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Horn, Laurence R.
1969 A presuppositional analysis of only and even
.
CLS 51. 98–107.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hu, Jianhua & Pan, Haihua & Xu, Liejiong
2001 Is there a finite vs. nonfinite distinction in Chinese? Linguistics 39(6). 1117–1148.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Huang, C.-T. James
1982 Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. Cambridge: MIT. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Huang, C.-T. James
1983 On the representation of scope in Chinese.
Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 11(1). 36–91.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Huang, C.-T. James
1987 Remarks on empty categories in Chinese.
Linguistic Inquiry 18(2). 321–337.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Huang, C.-T. James
1989 Pro-drop in Chinese: A generalized control theory. In
Jaeggli, Osvaldo A. &
Safir, Kenneth J. (eds.),
The null subject parameter (
Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 15), 185–214. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Huang, Shi-Zhe
1996 Quantification and predication in Mandarin Chinese: A case study of Dou. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jackendoff, Ray S.
1972 Semantic interpretation in generative grammar (Current Studies in Linguistics). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jiang, Jingzhong, & Pan, Haihua
2013 “Dou” de yuyi fenhe ji jieshi guize [How many DOUs do we really need?].
Zhongguo Yuwen [
Studies of the Chinese Language
] 2013(1). 38–50.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Karttunen, Lauri & Peters, Stanley
1979 Conventional implicature. In
Oh, Choon-Kyu &
Dinneen, David A. (eds.),
Syntax and semantics: Presupposition, vol. 111, 1–56. New York: Academic Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kay, Paul
1990 Even.
Linguistics and Philosophy 13(1). 59–111.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kay, Paul
2006 Pragmatic aspects of grammatical constructions. In
Horn, Laurence R. &
Ward, Gregory (eds.),
The handbook of pragmatics (
Blackwell handbooks in linguistics 16), 675–700. Malden: Blackwell.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
König, Ekkehard
1991 The meaning of focus particles: A comparative perspective. New York: Routledge.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kratzer, Angelika
1991 The representation of focus. In
von Stechow, Arnim &
Wunderlich, Dieter (eds.),
Semantics: An international handbook of contemporary research, 825–834. Berlin: de Gruyter.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Krifka, Manfred
1991 A compositional semantics for multiple focus constructions. In
Moore, Steven &
Wyner, Adam Zachary (eds.),
Proceedings from semantics and linguistic theory I (
Cornell Working Papers in Linguistics 10), 127–158. Ithaca: Cornell University.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kuo, Chin-Man
2003 The fine structure of negative polarity items in Chinese. Los Angeles: University of Southern California. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ladusaw, William A.
1996 Negation and polarity items. In
Lappin, Shalom (ed.),
The handbook of contemporary semantic theory (
Blackwell Handbook in Linguistics 3), 321–341. London: Blackwell.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lahiri, Utpal
1998 Focus and negative polarity in Hindi.
Natural Language Semantics 6(1). 57–123.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Language and Knowledge Processing Group
1994–2013 Academia Sinica Balanced Corpus of Modern Chinese. Taipei: Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lee, Thomas Hun-tak
1986 Studies on quantification in Chinese. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Li, Yen-Hui Audrey
1985 Abstract case in Chinese. Los Angeles: University of Southern California. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Li, Yen-Hui Audrey
1990 Order and constituency in Mandarin Chinese. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liao, Wei-wen Roger
2016 The top-down and bottom-up ways of getting EVEN in Chinese. (Paper presented at the 11th Workshop on Formal Syntax and Semantics (FOSS-11), Taipei, 2 September 2016.)
Lin, Jo-wang
1998 Distributivity in Chinese and its implications.
Natural Language Semantics 6(2). 201–243.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Liu, Hongni
2009 Hanyu fei jufa jiegou de cihuihua [
The lexicalization of the non-syntactic structures in Chinese
]. Shanghai: Shanghai Normal University. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lü, Shuxiang
1946/1990 Cong zhuyu binyu de fenbie tandao Guoyu juzi de fenxi [From the distinction between subject and object to the analysis of Mandarin sentences].
Lü Shuxiang wenji [
The collected works of Lü Shuxiang
], vol. 21, 445–480. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lü, Shuxiang
(ed.) 1999 Xiandai Hanyu babai ci [
Eight hundred words in Modern Chinese
]. Revised edn. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lycan, William G.
1991 Even and even if.
Linguistics and Philosophy 14(2). 115–150.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ma, Zhen
1982 Shuo ‘ye’ [Talking about ‘ye’].
Zhongguo Yuwen [
Studies of the Chinese Language
] 1982(4). 283–287.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Miyagawa, Shigeru
2010 Why agree? Why move?: Unifying agreement-based and discourse-configurational languages (
Linguistic Inquiry Monograph). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Nakanishi, Kimiko
2012 The scope of even and quantifier raising.
Natural Language Semantics 20(2). 115–136.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pai, Meing-Hsien
2013 “Lian” ziju de lishi yanbian yanjiu [
A study on the historical evolution of “lian” construction
]. Taipei: National Taiwan University. (Master’s thesis.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Paris, Marie-Claude
1979 Some aspects of the syntax and semantics of the “lian…ye/dou” construction in Mandarin.
Cahiers de linguistique-Asie orientale 5(1). 47–70.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Paris, Marie-Claude
1994 The interaction between focus operators and types of VPs in Mandarin. (Paper presented at the 6th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics, Los Angeles, 13–15 May 1994.)
Rooth, Mats Edward
1985 Association with focus. Amherst: University of Massachusetts. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rooth, Mats
1996 Focus. In
Lappin, Shalom (ed.),
The handbook of contemporary semantic theory (
Blackwell Handbook in Linguistics 3), 271–297. London: Blackwell.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rullmann, Hotze
1997
Even, polarity, and scope. In
Gibson, Martha &
Wiebe, Grace &
Libben, Gary (eds.),
Papers in experimental and theoretical linguistics, vol. 41, 40–64. Edmonton: Department of Linguistics, University of Alberta.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rullmann, Hotze
2003 Additive particles and polarity.
Journal of Semantics 20(4). 329–401.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sells, Peter
2011 How negation scopes in Japanese and Korean. In
McClure, William &
den Dikken, Marcel (eds.),
Japanese and Korean linguistics 18, 328–344. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shyu, Shu-ing
1995 The syntax of focus and topic in Mandarin Chinese. Los Angeles: University of Southern California. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shyu, Shu-ing
2004 (A)symmetries between Mandarin Chinese lian…dou and shenzhi
.
Journal of Chinese Linguistics 32(1). 81–128.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shyu, Shu-ing
2014 Topic and focus. In
Huang, C.-T. James &
Li, Yen-Hui Audrey &
Simpson, Andrew (eds.),
The handbook of Chinese linguistics, 100–125. Malden: Blackwell.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shyu, Shu-ing
2016 Minimizers and EVEN.
Linguistics 54(6). 1355–1395.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Sybesma, Rint
1996 Review of “The syntax of focus and topic in Mandarin Chinese” by Shyu Shu-ing.
GLOT International 21. 13–14.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Taglicht, Josef
1984 Message and emphasis: On focus and scope in English. London: Longman.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tang, C.-C. Jane
1990 Chinese phrase structure and the extended X’-Theory. Ithaca: Cornell University. (Doctoral dissertation.)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tang, Ting-chi
2000 Hanyu de “xianding ziju” yu “feixianding ziju” [Finite and nonfinite clauses in Chinese].
Language and Linguistics 1(1). 191–214.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tsai, W.-T. Dylan
2004 Tan ZHI yu LIAN de xingshi yuyi [On formal semantics of
zhi and
lian in Chinese].
Zhongguo Yuwen [
Studies of the Chinese Language
] 2004(2). 99–111.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tsao, Feng-fu
1994 Zailun huati he lian…dou/ye jiegou [More on topic and
lian…dou/ye construction]. In
Tai, James &
Xue, Feng-Sheng (eds.),
Gongneng zhuyi yu Hanyu yufa [
Functionalism and Chinese grammar
], 95–116. Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ussery, Cherlon & Ding, Lydia & Liu, Yining Rebecca
2016 The typology of Mandarin infinitives. In
Farrell, Patrick (ed.),
Proceedings of Linguistic Society of America, vol. 1 (2016). 28: 1–15.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
von Stechow, Arnim
1991 Current issues in the theory of focus. In
von Stechow, Arnim &
Wunderlich, Dieter (eds.),
Semantics: An international handbook of contemporary research, 804–825. Berlin: de Gruyter.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wang, Yu-Fang Flora & Hsieh, Miao-Ling
1996 A syntactic study of the Chinese negative polarity items renhe
.
Cahiers de linguistique-Asie Orientale 25(1). 35–62.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Wilkinson, Karina
1996 The scope of even
.
Natural Language Semantics 4(3). 193–215.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Xiang, Ming
2008 Plurality, maximality and scalar inferences: A case study of Mandarin Dou
.
Journal of East Asian Linguistics 17(3). 227–245.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Xu, Liejiong & Liu, Danqing
2007 Huati de jiegou yu gongneng [
Topic: Structural and functional analysis
]. Revised edn. Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yuan, Yulin
2005 “Dou” de yuyi gongneng he guanlian fangxiang xinjie [A new explanation of the semantic function and association direction of
dou
].
Zhongguo Yuwen [
Studies of the Chinese Language
] 2005(2). 99–109.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Yuan, Yulin
2008 Fan yuqi, dijin guanxi he yuyong chidu de leixing – shenzhi he faner de yuyi gongneng bijiao [Counter-expectation, additive relation and the types of pragmatic scale: The comparative analyses of the semantic function of
shenzhi and
faner
].
Dangdai Yuyanxue [
Contemporary Linguistics
] 2008(2).109–121.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Zhang, Niina Ning
2016 Identifying Chinese dependent clauses in the forms of subjects.
Journal of East Asian Linguistics 25(3). 275–311.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cited by
Cited by 1 other publications
Hsu, Yu-Yin & Ka Keung Lee
2020.
Similarities and Differences of Dou in Mandarin and Cantonese. In
From Minimal Contrast to Meaning Construct [
Frontiers in Chinese Linguistics, 9],
► pp. 77 ff.
![DOI logo](//benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 23 april 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.