Article published in:
Language, Interaction and Acquisition
Vol. 10:2 (2019) ► pp. 141–176

Syntax and working memory in typically-developing children

Focus on syntactic complexity

| University of Geneva
| University of Geneva
A growing trend in developmental psycholinguistics is to relate linguistic development to the development of other cognitive systems. Jakubowicz (2005, 2011) in particular argued that the processing of a complex sentence requires considerable working memory (WM) resources and that these resources are limited in young children, which would explain their non-adult grammar. The present research aims to clarify the relationship between WM and complex syntax, in comprehension, repetition, and spontaneous production, in 48 typically-developing children aged 5 to 12. Our results demonstrate a strong age effect for all measures of WM and syntax. They also reveal strong correlations between scores on simple and complex spans and syntactic performance. Finally, we show the highly predictive value of WM capacities on the acquisition of syntactic skills in both comprehension and production. In particular, the complex-span task, measuring counting span, explains the largest part of the variance in the spontaneous production of embedded clauses.
Keywords: syntax, working memory, children, syntactic complexity
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
    • 1.1Syntactic complexity: Focus on syntactic movement and embedding
    • 1.2Working memory: Focus on simple/complex spans
    • 1.3Working memory and complex syntax
    • 1.4Aim and prediction of the present study
  • 2.Method
    • 2.1Participants
    • 2.2Working memory tasks
    • 2.3Syntactic tasks
  • 3.Results
    • 3.1Performance on individual experimental tasks: Working memory
    • 3.2Performance on individual experimental tasks: Complex syntax
    • 3.3Correlation analyses
    • 3.4Regression analyses
    • 3.5Further examination of syntactic complexity
  • 4.Discussion
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 04 November 2019
https://doi.org/10.1075/lia.18013.del
References
Aben, B., Stapert, S., & Blokland, A.
(2012) About the distinction between working memory and short-term memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 3 1, 301. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Adams, A. M., & Gathercole, S. E.
(2000) Limitations in working memory: Implications for language development. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 35 (1), 95–116. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Adani, F.
(2008) The role of features in relative clause comprehension: A study of typical and atypical development. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University Milano-Bicocca, Italy.Google Scholar
Anderson, V. A., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., & Catroppa, C.
(2001) Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20 (1), 385–406. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E.
(2006) Short-term and working memory in specific language impairment. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorder, 41 (6), 675–693. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2007) The complexities of complex memory span: Storage and processing deficits in specific language impairment. Journal of Memory and Language, 57 (2), 177–194. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Arosio, F., Guasti, M. T., & Stucchi, N.
(2011) Disambiguating information and memory resources in children’s processing of Italian relative clauses. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 40 (2), 137–154. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Audollent, C., & Tuller, L.
(2003) La dysphasie : quelles séquelles en français. ANAE, 75 1, 264–270.Google Scholar
Baayen, R. H.
(2008) Analyzing linguistic data: A practical introduction to statistics using R. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010) LanguageR: Data sets and functions with “analyzing linguistic data: A practical introduction to statistics”. Available from http://​CRAN​.R​-project​.org​/package​=languageR
Baddeley, A. D.
(2000) The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (11), 417–423. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2003) Working memory and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36 (3), 189–208. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A., Gathercole, S., & Papagno, C.
(1998) The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105 (1), 158. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G.
(1974) Working memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 8 1, 47–89. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V.
(2015) Working memory: Loss and reconstruction. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Barrouillet, P., Gavens, N., Vergauwe, E., Gaillard, V., & Camos, V.
(2009) Working memory span development: A time-based resource-sharing model account. Developmental Psychology, 45 (2), 477–90. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bates, D., Maechler, M., & Bolker, B.
(2011) lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. R package version 0.999375-42. http://​lme4​.r​-forge​.r​-project​.org/
Bédard, F., Bodson, H., & Hould-Fortin, J.
(2011) Le traitement des ambiguïtés syntaxiques en contexte chez les bilingues. Université du Québec à Montréal. (Page consultée le 16 juillet 2018), http://​www​.linguistique​.uqam​.ca​/upload​/CESLA2011​/article​_4​.pdf
Bentea, A., & Durrleman, S.
(2013) A′-dependencies in French. Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory 2011: Selected papers from ‘Going Romance’ Utrecht, 5 (1), 1–16.Google Scholar
Bentea, A., Durrleman, S., & Rizzi, L.
(2016) Refining intervention: The acquisition of featural relations in object A-bar dependencies. Lingua, 169 1, 21–41. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Belsey, D. A., Kuh, E., & Welsch, R. E.
(1980) Regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. New York: John Wiley. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H.
(2010) A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81 (6), 1641–1660. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, D. V. M.
(1989) Test for Reception of Grammar (2nd edition). Age and Cognitive Performance Research Centre, University of Manchester.Google Scholar
Bishop, D. V. M., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A., Greenhalgh, T., & CATALISE consortium
(2016) CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study. Identifying Language Impairments in Children. PLoS ONE, 11 (12).Google Scholar
Borer, H., & Wexler, K.
(1987) The maturation of syntax. In T. Roeper & E. Williams (Eds.), Parameter setting (pp. 123–172). Dordrecht: Reidel. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Camos, V., & Barrouillet, P.
(2018) Working memory in development. Routledge, New York. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Caplan, D., & Waters, G. S.
(1999) Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22 (1), 77–94. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Case, R., Kurland, D. M., & Goldberg, J.
(1982) Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 33 (3), 386–404. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N.
(1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press.Google Scholar
(1980) Rules and representations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1995) Language and nature. Mind, 104 (413), 1–61. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2005) Three factors in language design. Linguistic Inquiry, 36 (1), 1–22. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chondrogianni, V.
(2008) Comparing child and adult L2 acquisition of the Greek DP: Effects of age and construction. In B. Haznedar & E. Gavruseva (Eds.), Current trends in child second language acquisition: A generative perspective (pp. 97–142). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Conway, A. R., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W.
(2005) Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12 (5), 769–786. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Corps, R. E., Gambi, C., & Pickering, M. J.
(2018) Coordinating utterances during turn-taking: The role of prediction, response preparation, and articulation. Discourse Processes, 55 (2), 230–240. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cowan, N.
(1999) An embedded-processes model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 62–101). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A.
(1980) Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19 (4), 450–466. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Daneman, M., & Merikle, P. M.
(1996) Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3 (4), 422–433. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Delage, H.
(2008) Évolution de l’hétérogénéité linguistique chez les enfants sourds moyens et légers: Étude de la complexité morphosyntaxique. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Université François Rabelais de Tours, France.Google Scholar
Delage, H., Durrleman, S., & Frauenfelder, U. H.
(2016) Disentangling sources of difficulty associated with the acquisition of accusative clitics in French. Lingua, 180 1, 1–24. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Delage, H., Monjauze, C., Hamann, C., & Tuller, L.
(2007) Relative clauses in atypical acquisition of French. In Language Acquisition and Development: Proceedings of GALA 2007 (pp. 166–176). Cambridge Scholars Publishing (CSP).Google Scholar
Delage, H., & Tuller, L.
(2007) Language development and mild-to-moderate hearing loss: Does language normalize with age? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50 (5), 1300–1313. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dispaldro, M., Deevy, P., Altoe, G., Benelli, B., & Leonard, L. B.
(2011) A cross-linguistic study of real-word and non-word repetition as predictors of grammatical competence in children with typical language development. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 46 (5), 564–578. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Durrleman, S., & Delage, H.
(2016) Autism Spectrum Disorder and Specific Language Impairment: Overlaps in syntactic profiles. Language Acquisition, 23 (4), 361–386. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Durrleman, S., Delage, H., Prévost, P., & Tuller, L.
(2017) The comprehension of passives in autism spectrum disorder. Glossa, 2 1, 1–30. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., Gathercole, S. E., & Martin, R.
(2011) Disentangling the relationship between working memory and language: The roles of short-term storage and cognitive control. Learning and Individual Differences, 21 (5), 569–574. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Finney, M. C., Montgomery, J. W., Gillam, R. B., & Evans, J. L.
(2014) Role of working memory storage and attention focus switching in children’s comprehension of spoken object relative sentences. Child Development Research 2014, 1–11. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Frauenfelder, U. H., & Delage, H.
(2013) Modularity and domain specificity in language and cognition. In S. R. Anderson, J. Moeschler, & F. Reboul (Eds.), The language-cognition interface (pp. 375–394). Droz: Genève.Google Scholar
Frizelle, P., & Fletcher, P.
(2014) Relative clause constructions in children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 49 (2), 255–264. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2015) The role of memory in processing relative clauses in children with specific language impairment. American Journal of Speech and Language Pathology, 24 1, 47–59. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H.
(2004) The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 40 (2), 177–190. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., Service, E., Hitch, G. J., Adams, A. M., & Martin, A. J.
(1999) Phonological short-term memory and vocabulary development: Further evidence on the nature of the relationship. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13 (1), 65–77. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, E.
(1998) Linguistic complexity: Locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition, 68 (1), 1–76. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gooch, D., Thompson, P., Nash, H. M., Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C.
(2016) The development of executive function and language skills in the early school years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57 (2), 180–187. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Grüter, T.
(2006) Object clitics and null objects in the acquisition of French. Unpublished PhD dissertation. McGill University, Canada.Google Scholar
Grüter, T., & Crago, M.
(2012) Object clitics and their omission in child L2 French: The contributions of processing limitations and L1 transfer. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15 (3), 531–549. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Guasti, M. T., & Cardinaletti, A.
(2003) Relative clause formation in Romance child’s production. Probus, 15 (1), 47–89. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hamann, C., Tuller, L., Monjauze, C., Delage, H., & Henry, C.
(2007) (Un)successful subordination in French-speaking children and adolescents with SLI. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 286–297). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Hamann, C., & Tuller, L.
(2014) Genuine versus superficial relatives in French: The depth of embedding factor. Revisita di Grammatica Generativa, 36 1, 146–181.Google Scholar
(2015) Intervention effects in the spontaneous production of relative clauses in (a) typical language development of French children and adolescents. In E. Di Domenica, C. Hamann, & S. Matteini (Eds.), Structures, strategies and beyond: Papers in honor of Adriana Belletti (pp. 321–342). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch, T. W.
(2002) The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? Science, 198 1, 1569–1579. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Henry, L. A., Messer, D. J., & Nash, G.
(2012) Executive functioning in children with specific language impairment. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53 (1), 37–45. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hilbert, S., Nakagawa, T. T., Puci, P., Zech, A., & Bühner, M.
(2015) The Digit Span Backwards Task. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 31 1, 174–180. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Houston, D. M., & Bergeson, T. R.
(2014) Hearing versus listening: Attention to speech and its role in language acquisition in deaf infants with cochlear implants. Lingua, 139 1, 10–25. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Im-Bolter, N., Johnson, J., & Pascual-Leone, J.
(2006) Processing limitations in children with specific language impairment: The role of executive function. Child Development, 77 (6), 1822–1841. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jakubowicz, C.
(2005) The language faculty: (Ab)normal development and interface constraints. Talk presented at GALA, University of Siena.
(2011) Measuring derivational complexity: New evidence from typically developing and SLI learners of L1 French. Lingua, 121 (3), 339–351. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Jakubowicz, C., & Tuller, L.
(2007) Specific language impairment in French. In D. Ayoun (Ed.), French applied linguistics (pp. 97–134). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.Google Scholar
Karmiloff-Smith, A.
(1998) Development itself is the key to understanding developmental disorders. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2 (10), 389–398. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kidd, E.
(2013) The role of verbal working memory in children’s sentence comprehension: A critical review. Topics in Language Disorders, 33 (3), 208–223. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
La Pointe, L. B., & Engle, R. W.
(1990) Simple and complex word spans as measures of working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16 (6), 1118–1133.Google Scholar
Leclercq, A. L., & Majerus, S.
(2010) Serial-order short-term memory predicts vocabulary development: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 46 (2), 417–427. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lecocq, P.
(1996) L’ECOSSE : Une épreuve de compréhension syntaxo-sémantique. Lille: Presses Universitaires de Septentrion.Google Scholar
MacWhinney, B.
(2000) The CHILDES project. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Majerus, S.
(2008) La mémoire verbale à court terme : Un simple produit des interactions entre systèmes langagiers, attentionnels et de traitement de l’ordre sériel ? Psychologie Française, 53 (3), 327–341. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Majerus, S., Heiligenstein, L., Gautherot, N., Poncelet, M., & Van der Linden, M.
(2009) Impact of auditory selective attention on verbal short-term memory and vocabulary development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103 (1), 66–86. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., Greffe, C., & van der Linden, M.
(2006) Relations between vocabulary development and verbal short-term memory: The relative importance of short-term memory for serial order and item information. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93 (2), 95–119. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Marinis, T., & Saddy, D.
(2013) Parsing the passive: Comparing children with Specific Language Impairment to sequential bilingual children. Language Acquisition, 20 (2), 155–179. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Marton, K., & Schwartz, R. G.
(2003) Working memory capacity and language processes in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46 (5), 1138–1153. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mateu, V. E.
(2015) Object clitic omission in child Spanish: Evaluating representational and processing accounts. Language Acquisition, 22 (3), 240–284. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z.
(2010) The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology, 24 (2), 222–243. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J. W.
(2008) Role of auditory attention in the real-time processing of simple grammar by children with specific language impairment: A preliminary investigation. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 43 (5), 499–527. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J. W., & Evans, J. L.
(2009) Complex sentence comprehension and working memory in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 52 (2), 269–288. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., & Finney, M. C.
(2010) Working memory and specific language impairment: An update on the relation and perspectives on assessment and treatment. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19 (1), 78–94. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., & O’Malley, M. H.
(2008) Role of working memory in typically developing children’s complex sentence comprehension. Journal of Psycholinguist Research, 37 1, 331–354. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mousty, P., Leybaert, J., Alegria, J., Content, A., & Moraïs, J.
(1994) B.E.L.E.C. : Batterie d’évaluation du langage et de ses troubles. Bruxelles: Laboratoire de psychologie expérimentale, Université libre de Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Papagno, C., Cecchetto, C., Reati, F., & Bello, L.
(2007) Processing of syntactically complex sentences relies on verbal short-term memory: Evidence from a short-term memory patient. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 24 (3), 292–311. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pinker, S., & Jackendoff, R.
(2005) The faculty of language: What’s special about it? Cognition, 95 1, 201–236. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Poll, G. H., Miller, C. A., Mainela-Arnold, E., Adams, K. D., Misra, M., & Park, J. S.
(2013) Effects of children’s working memory capacity and processing speed on their sentence imitation performance. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 48 (3), 329–342. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pross, N., Gaonac’h, D., & Gaux, C.
(2008) Développement de la mémoire de travail : Relations du centre exécutif avec la boucle phonologique et le calepin visuospatial chez des enfants de CE1 et de CM2. Psychologie Française, 53 (3), 307–326. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Raven, J. C.
(1998) Raven’s progressive matrices and vocabulary scales. Oxford: Oxford Pyschologists Press.Google Scholar
Rizzi, L.
(1993/4) Some notes on linguistic theory and language development: The case of root infinitives, Language Acquisition, 3 1, 341–393. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2002) On the grammatical basis of language development. In G. Cinque & R. S. Kayne (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of comparative syntax (pp. 70–109). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Santi, A., & Grodzinsky, Y.
(2007) Working memory and syntax interact in Broca’s area. Neuroimage, 37 (1), 8–17. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010) fMRI adaptation dissociates syntactic complexity dimensions. Neuroimage, 51 (4), 1285–1293. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Scott, C. M., & Windsor, J.
(2000) General language performance measures in spoken and written narrative and expository discourse of school-age children with language learning disabilities. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43 1, 324–339. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Semel, E., Wiig, E. H., & Secord, W. A.
(2003) Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals, fourth edition (CELF-4). Tornoto: The Psychological Corporation/A Harcourt Assessment Company.Google Scholar
Siegel, L. S.
(1994) Working memory and reading: A life-span perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17 (1), 109–124. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Slabakova, R.
(2008) Meaning in the second language. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
St Clair-Thompson, H. L.
(2010) Backwards digit recall: A measure of short-term memory or working memory? European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 22 (2), 286–296. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Steel, G., Rose, M., Eadie, P., & Thornton, R.
(2013) Assessment of complement clauses: A comparison between elicitation tasks and language sample data. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15 (3), 286–295. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sung, J. E., Yoo, J. K., Lee, S. E., & Eom, B.
(2017) Effects of age, working memory, and word order on passive-sentence comprehension: Evidence from a verb-final language. International Psychogeriatrics, 29 (6), 939–948. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M.
(2000) Do young children have adult syntactic competence? Cognition, 74 (3), 209–253. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2003) Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Tuller, L., Delage, H., Monjauze, C., Piller, A. G., & Barthez, M. A.
(2011) Clitic pronoun production as a measure of atypical language development in French. Lingua, 121 (3), 423–441. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Tuller, L., Henry, C., Sizaret, E., & Barthez, M. A.
(2012) Specific language impairment at adolescence: Avoiding complexity. Applied Psycholinguistics, 33 (1), 161–184. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W.
(1989) Is working memory capacity task dependent? Journal of Memory and Language, 28 (2), 127–154. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Unsworth, S.
(2008) Comparing child L2 development with adult L2 development. In B. Haznedar & E. Gavruseva (Eds.), Current trends in child second language acquisition: A generative perspective (pp. 301–336). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Veer, I. M., Luyten, H., Mulder, H., van Tuijl, C., & Sleegers, P. J. C.
(2017) Selective attention relates to the development of executive functions in 2,5- to 3-year-olds: A longitudinal study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 41 1, 84–94. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Vugs, B., Knoors, H., Cuperus, J., Hendriks, M., & Verhoeven, L.
(2016) Interactions between working memory and language in young children with specific language impairment (SLI). Child Neuropsychology, 22 (8), 955–978. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D.
(2005) WISC-IV : Echelle d’Intelligence de Wechsler pour Enfants, 4th Edition. Paris: Les Editions du Centre de Psychologie Appliquée.Google Scholar
Wexler, K.
(2004) Theory of phasal development: Perfection in child grammar. MIT working papers in linguistics, 48 1, 159–209.Google Scholar
Willis, C. S., & Gathercole, S. E.
(2001) Phonological short-term memory contributions to sentence processing in young children. Memory, 9 (4–6), 349–363. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Zesiger, P., Zesiger, L. C., Arabatzi, M., Baranzini, L., Cronel-Ohayon, S., Franck, J., & Rizzi, L.
(2010) The acquisition of pronouns by French children: A parallel study of production and comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31 (4), 571–603. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 8 other publications

Adams, Eryn J. & Nelson Cowan
2021. The Girl Was Watered by the Flower: Effects of Working Memory Loads on Syntactic Production in Young Children. Journal of Cognition and Development 22:1 ► pp. 125 ff. Crossref logo
Delage, Hélène, Inge-Marie Eigsti, Emily Stanford & Stephanie Durrleman
2021. A Preliminary Examination of the Impact of Working Memory Training on Syntax and Processing Speed in Children with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Crossref logo
Delage, Hélène, Emily Stanford & Stephanie Durrleman
2021. Working memory training enhances complex syntax in children with Developmental Language Disorder. Applied Psycholinguistics 42:5 ► pp. 1341 ff. Crossref logo
Durrleman, Stephanie & Hélène Delage
2020. Training Complements for Belief Reasoning in Developmental Language Disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 63:6 ► pp. 1861 ff. Crossref logo
HENDRIKS, Henriëtte, Maya HICKMANN & Carla PASTORINO-CAMPOS
2021. Running or crossing? Children's expression of voluntary motion in English, German, and French. Journal of Child Language ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Kuijper, Sanne J. M., Catharina A. Hartman & Petra Hendriks
2021. Children’s Pronoun Interpretation Problems Are Related to Theory of Mind and Inhibition, But Not Working Memory. Frontiers in Psychology 12 Crossref logo
Stanford, Emily & Hélène Delage
2020. Complex syntax and working memory in children with specific learning difficulties. First Language 40:4 ► pp. 411 ff. Crossref logo
Wagley, Neelima & James R. Booth
2021. Neuro-cognitive development of semantic and syntactic bootstrapping in 6- to 7.5-year-old children. NeuroImage 241 ► pp. 118416 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 05 april 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.