Cover not available
Article published In:
Second Language Acquisition of Sign Languages: Acquisition d'une langue des signes comme langue seconde
Edited by Krister Schönström and Chloë Marshall
[Language, Interaction and Acquisition 13:2] 2022
► pp. 231–253

Why Second Language Acquisition of sign languages matters to general SLA research

| Lund University

SLA research is characterised by a striking homogeneity in the linguistic, social and geographical data we as a field draw on. Such empirical homogeneity is a potential threat to the validity and scope of our models and theories. This paper focuses on a particular gap in our knowledge, namely the SLA of sign languages. It outlines an argument as to why the SLA of sign matters to general SLA research in terms of the empirical representativity, generalisability, and validity of the conclusions in the field. It exemplifies three domains where the study of language acquisition across modalities could shed important light on theoretical issues in mainstream SLA/bilingualism research (e.g. learner varieties, explicit-implicit learning, and crosslinguistic influence), and highlight some of the methodological challenges involved in such work.

Keywords: SLA, sign languages, modality, generalisability
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Learner varieties
  • 3.Explicit-implicit and intentional-incidental learning
    • 3.1Explicit-intentional learning
    • 3.2Implicit-incidental learning
  • 4.Crosslinguistic influence
  • 5.Challenges
  • 6.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 23 February 2023
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/lia.22022.gul
References
Alonso Alonso, R.
(Ed.) (2016) Crosslinguistic influence in second language acquisition. Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Andringa, S.
(2020) The emergence of awareness in uninstructed L2 learning: A visual world eye tracking study. Second Language Research, 36 (3), 335–357. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Andringa, S., & Godfroid, A.
(2020) Sampling bias and the problem of generalizability in Applied Linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 40 1, 134–142. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Andringa, S., & Rebuschat, P.
(2015) New directions in the study of implicit and explicit learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37 1, 185–96. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Benazzo, S.
(2009) The emergence of temporality: from restricted linguistic systems to early human language. In R. P. Botha & H. De Swart (Eds.), Language evolution: The view from restricted linguistic systems (pp. 21–57). LOT, Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics.Google Scholar
(2012) Language origins, learner varieties and creating language anew: How acquisitional studies can contribute to language evolution research. In M. Watorek, S. Benazzo, & M. Hickmann (Eds.), Comparative perspectives to language acquisition: A tribute to Clive Perdue (pp. 204–222). Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bishop, M., & Hicks, S. L.
(2005) Orange eyes: Bimodal bilingualism in hearing adults from deaf families. Sign Language Studies, 5 (2), 188–230. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Boers-Visker, E.
(2020) Learning to use space: A study into the SL2 acquisition process of adult learners of Sign Language of the Netherlands. (PhD diss.), Utrecht University, Utrecht.
Cadierno, T.
(2017) Thinking for speaking about motion in a second language. Looking back and forward. In I. Ibarretxe-Antuñano (Ed.), Motion and space across languages: Theory and applications (pp. 279–300). Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carroll, M., Murcia-Serra, J., Watorek, M., & Bendiscioli, A.
(2000) The relevance of information organization to second language acquisition studies: The descriptive discourse of advanced adult learners of German. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22 (3), 441–466. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carroll, S. E.
(1999) Putting ‘input’ in its proper place. Second Language Research, 15 (4), 337–388. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Casey, S., Emmorey, K., & Larrabee, H.
(2012) The effects of learning American Sign Language on co-speech gesture. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15 (4), 677–686. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chapelle, C.
(Ed.) (2012) The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chen Pichler, D., & Koulidobrova, H.
(2016) Acquisition of sign language as a second language (L2). In M. Marschark & P. E. Spencer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Deaf Studies in language: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 218–230). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cheng, L. S. P., Burgess, D., Vernooij, N., Solís-Barroso, C., McDermott, A., & Namboodiripad, S.
(2021) The problematic concept of native speaker in psycholinguistics: Replacing vague and harmful terminology with inclusive and accurate measures. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 1. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Christiansen, M. H.
(2019) Implicit statistical learning: a tale of two literatures. Topics in Cognitive Science, 11 (3), 468–481. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cook, V.
(1992) Evidence for multicompetence. Language Learning, 42 (4), 557–591. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Davies, A.
(2003) The native speaker: myth and reality. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M.
(2003) Implicit and explicit learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313–348). Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dewaele, J.-M., Bak, T. H., & Ortega, L.
(2021) Why the mythical ‘native speaker’ has mud on its face. In N. Slavkov, S. M. Melo-Pfeifer, & N. Kerschhofer-Puhalo (Eds.), Changing face of the “native speaker”: Perspectives from multilingualism and globalization (pp. 25–46). Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dimroth, C.
(2012) Learner varieties. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dimroth, C., Rast, R., Starren, M., & Watorek, M.
(2013) Methods for studying the acquisition of a new language under controlled input conditions: The VILLA project. EUROSLA Yearbook, 13 1, 109–138. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Doughty, C. J.
(2003) Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 256–310). Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C.
(2005) At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27 1, 305–352. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012) What can we count in language, and what counts in language acquisition, cognition, and use? In S. T. Gries & D. Divjak (Eds.), Frequency effects in language learning and processing (pp. 7–34). Mouton. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Collins, L.
(2009) Input and second language acquisition: The roles of frequency, form, and function. Introduction to the Special Issue. The Modern Language Journal, 93 (3), 329–335. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Sagarra, N.
(2011) Learned attention in adult language acquisition. A replication and generalization study and meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33 (4), 589–624. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R.
(2017) Task-based language teaching. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 108–125): Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Emmorey, K., Borinstein, H. B., Thompson, R., & Gollan, T. H.
(2008) Bimodal bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11 (1), 43–61. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Emmorey, K., Giezen, M. R., & Gollan, T. H.
(2016) Psycholinguistic, cognitive, and neural implications of bimodal bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19 (2), 223–242. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Evans, N., & Levinson, S. C.
(2009) The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32 1, 429–492. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gärdenfors, M., Johansson, V., & Schönström, K.
(2019) Spelling in deaf, hard of hearing and hearing children with sign language knowledge. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 1. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A.
(2021) Implicit and explicit learning and knowledge. In H. Mohebbi & C. Coombe (Eds.), Research questions in language education and Applied Linguistics (pp. 823–829). Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gullberg, M.
(2003) Gestures, referents, and anaphoric linkage in learner varieties. In C. Dimroth & M. Starren (Eds.), Information structure and the dynamics of language acquisition (pp. 311–328). Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012) Bilingual multimodality in language documentation data. Language Documentation & Conservation, 6 1, 47–54.Google Scholar
Gullberg, M., Roberts, L., & Dimroth, C.
(2012) What word-level knowledge can adult learners acquire after minimal exposure to a new language? International Review of Applied Linguistics, 50 (4), 239–276. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gullberg, M., Roberts, L., Dimroth, C., Veroude, K., & Indefrey, P.
(2010) Adult language learning after minimal exposure to an unknown natural language. Language Learning, 60 (S2), 5–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gutierrez-Mangado, M. J., Martínez-Adrián, M., & Gallardo-del-Puerto, F.
(Eds.) (2019) Cross-linguistic influence: From empirical evidence to classroom practice. Springer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Haug, T., Mann, W., & Knoch, U.
(Eds.) (2022) The handbook of language assessment across modalities. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hendriks, H.
(Ed.) (2011) The structure of learner varieties. Mouton.Google Scholar
Hofweber, J., Aumonier, L., Janke, V., Gullberg, M., & Marshall, C. R.
(2022) Breaking into language in a new modality: The role of input and of individual differences in recognising signs. Frontiers in Psychology, 13 (895880). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Housen, A., Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I.
(Eds.) (2012) Dimensions of L2 performance and proficiency: Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in SLA. Benajmins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H.
(2003) Incidental and intentional learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 349–381). Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2005) Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second-language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27 (2), 129–140. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012) Incidental learning in second language acquisition. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jarvis, S., & Pavlenko, A.
(2008) Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kellerman, E.
(1995) Crosslinguistic influence: Transfer to nowhere? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 15 1, 125–150. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Klein, W.
(1998) The contribution of second language acquisition research. Language Learning, 48 (4), 527–550. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Klein, W., & Dimroth, C.
(2009) Untutored second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 503–522). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Klein, W., & Perdue, C.
(1992) Utterance structure. Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1997) The basic variety (or: Couldn’t natural languages be much simpler?). Second Language Research, 13 (4), 301–347. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Bogulski, C. A., & McClain, R.
(2012) Psycholinguistic perspectives on second language learning and bilingualism: The course and consequence of cross-language competition. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 2 (1), 1–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kubus, O., Villwock, A., Morford, J. P., & Rathmann, C.
(2015) Word recognition in deaf readers: Cross-language activation of German Sign Language and German. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36 (4), 831–854. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lado, R.
(1957) Linguistics across cultures: Applied Linguistics and language teachers. University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Lambert, M., Von Stutterheim, C., Carroll, M., & Gerwien, J.
(2022) Under the surface: A survey on principles of language use in advanced L2 speakers. Language, Interaction and Acquisition, 13 (1), 1–28. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Leow, R. P., & Zamora, C. C.
(2017) Intentional and incidental L2 learning. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition. Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Leung, J. H. C., & Williams, J. N.
(2014) Crosslinguistic differences in implicit language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 36 1, 733 – 755. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Levelt, W. J. M.
(1989) Speaking: From intention to articulation. Bradford Books/MIT Press.Google Scholar
Levinson, S. C., & Evans, N.
(2010) Time for a sea-change in linguistics: Response to comments on ‘The Myth of Language Universals’. Lingua, 120 (12), 2733–2758. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Li, S., Hiver, P., & Papi, M.
(Eds.) (2022) The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and individual differences. Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Loewen, S., & Sato, M.
(Eds.) (2017) The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lyster, R.
(2017) Content-based language teaching. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 87–107). Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B.
(1997) Second language acquisition and the Competition Model. In A. M. B. De Groot & J. F. Kroll (Eds.), Tutorials in bilingualism. Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 113–142). Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mann, W., Haug, T., & Knoch, U.
(2022) Epilogue: Finding common ground in language assessment of signed and spoken language: so far and yet so close. In H. Tobias, M. Wolfgang, & K. Ute (Eds.), The handbook of language assessment across modalities. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Marshall, C. R., Bel, A., Gulamani, S., & Morgan, G.
(2021) How are signed languages learned as second languages? Language and Linguistics Compass, 15 (1), e12403. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McManus, K.
(2021) Crosslinguistic influence and second language learning. Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meade, G., Midgley, K. J., Sevcikova Sehyr, Z., Holcomb, P. J., & Emmorey, K.
(2017) Implicit co-activation of American Sign Language in deaf readers: An ERP study. Brain and Language, 170 1, 50–61. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meisel, J. M., Clahsen, H., & Pienemann, M.
(1981) On determining developmental stages in natural second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 3 (2), 104–135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Michel, M.
(2017) Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in L2 production. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 50–68): Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mirus, G., Rathmann, C., & Meier, R. P.
(2001) Proximalization and distalization of Sign movement in adult learners. In V. Dively, M. Metzger, S. Taub, & A. M. Baer (Eds.), Signed languages. Discoveries from international research (pp. 103–119). Gallaudet University Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. E., & Karchmer, M. A.
(2004) Chasing the mythical ten percent: Parental hearing status of deaf and hard of hearing students in the United States. Sign Language Studies, 4 (2), 138–163. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Monaghan, P., Schoetensack, C., & Rebuschat, P.
(2019) A single paradigm for implicit and statistical learning. Topics in Cognitive Science, 11 (3), 536–554. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Morgan-Short, K.
(2020) Insights into the neural mechanisms of becoming bilingual: A brief synthesis of second language research with artificial linguistic systems. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23 (1), 87–91. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Müller de Quadros, R., Lillo-Martin, D., & Chen Pichler, D.
(2015) Bimodal bilingualism: Sign languague and spoken language. In M. Marschark & P. E. Spencer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Deaf Studies in language (pp. 181–196). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nassaji, H., & Kartchava, E.
(Eds.) (2017) Corrective feedback in second language teaching and learning: Research, theory, applications, implications. Routledge.Google Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L.
(2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50 (3), 417–528. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Odlin, T.
(2022) Explorations of language transfer. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Odlin, T., & Yu, L.
(Eds.) (2016) New perspectives on transfer in second language learning. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ortega, G., & Morgan, G.
(2015) Phonological development in hearing learners of a sign language: The influence of phonological parameters, sign complexity, and iconicity. Language Learning, 65 (3), 660–688. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ortega, L.
(2013) SLA for the 21st Century: Disciplinary progress, transdisciplinary relevance, and the bi/multilingual turn. Language Learning, 63 (S1), 1–24. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2018) SLA in uncertain times: Disciplinary constraints, transdisciplinary hopes. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 33 1. URL: [URL]
Otwinowska, A.
(2016) Cognate vocabulary in language acquisition and use: Attitudes, awareness, activation. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Pavlenko, A.
(2013) The affective turn in SLA: From ‘affective factors’ to ‘language desire’ and ‘commodification of affect’. In D. Gabryś-Barker & J. Bielska (Eds.), The affective dimension in second language acquisition (pp. 3–28). Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Perdue, C.
(2000) Organising principles of learner varieties. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22 (3), 299–305. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2006) “Creating language anew”: some remarks on an idea of Bernard Comrie’s. Linguistics, 44 (4), 853–871. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(Ed.) (1984) Second language acquisition by adult immigrants. A field manual. Newbury House.Google Scholar
(Ed.) (1993) Adult language acquisition: Cross-linguistic perspectives (Vol. 1 and 21). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Quer, J., & Steinbach, M.
(2019) Handling sign language data: The impact of modality. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 (483). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Quinto–Pozos, D.
(2011) Teaching American Sign Language to hearing adult learners. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31 1, 137–158. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rast, R. M.
(2008) Foreign language input: Initial processing. Multilingual Matters. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rebuschat, P., & Williams, J. N.
(2012a) Implicit learning in second language acquisition. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(Eds.) (2012b) Statistical learning and language acquisition. Mouton.Google Scholar
Robinson, P.
(2003) Attention and memory during SLA. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 631–678). Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2011) Task-based language learning: A review of issues. Language Learning, 61 (s1), 1–36. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rosen, R. S.
(2004) Beginning L2 production errors in ASL lexical phonology: A cognitive phonology model. Sign Language and Linguistics, 7 (1), 31–61. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Saffran, J. R.
(2003) Statistical language learning: Mechanisms and constraints. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12 1, 110–114. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Saffran, J. R., Newport, E. L., Aslin, R. N., Tunick, R. A., & Barrueco, S.
(1997) Incidental language learning: Listening (and learning) out of the corner of your ear. Psychological Science, 8 (2), 101–105. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sandler, W., Gullberg, M., & Padden, C.
(2019) Editorial: Visual language. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 (1765). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R.
(1990) The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11 (2), 129–158. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1993) Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13 1, 206–226. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schönström, K.
(2021) Sign languages and second language acquisition research: An introduction. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 5 (1), 30–42. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schönström, K., & Holmström, I.
(2022) L2M1 and L2M2 acquisition of sign lexicon: The impact of multimodality on the sign second language acquisition. Frontiers in Psychology, 13 (896254). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, B. D., & Sprouse, R. A.
(1996) L2 cognitive states and the Full Transfer/Full Access model. Second Language Research, 12 (1), 40–72. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sehyr, Z. S., Giezen, M. R., & Emmorey, K.
(2018) Comparing semantic fluency in American Sign Language and English. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 23 (4), 399–407. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Selinker, L.
(1972) Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10 (3), 209–231. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Senghas, A., Kita, S., & Özyürek, A.
(2004) Children creating core properties of language: Evidence from an emerging sign language in Nicaragua. Science, 305 (5691), 1779–1782. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Slobin, D. I.
(1991) Learning to think for speaking. Pragmatics, 1 1, 7–25.Google Scholar
(1996) From “thought and language” to “thinking for speaking”. In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70–96). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
(2004) How people move. Discourse effects of linguistic typology. In C. L. Moder & A. Martinovic-Zic (Eds.), Discourse across languages and cultures (pp. 195–210). Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Spada, N.
(2015) SLA research and L2 pedagogy: Misapplications and questions of relevance. Language Teaching, 48 (1), 69–81. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Talmy, L.
(1991) Paths to realization: A typology of event conflation. In L. A. Sutton, C. Johnson, & R. Shields (Eds.), Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (Vol. 171, pp. 480–519). Berkeley Linguistics Society. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2008) Aspects of attention in language. In P. Robinson & N. C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (pp. 27–38). Routledge.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. L., & Gutierrez, E.
(2019) Bimodal bilingualism: A unique window into the multilingual brain. In J. W. Schwieter (Ed.), The Handbook of the neuroscience of multilingualism (pp. 754–783). Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
VanPatten, B., & Williams, J.
(2014) Input processing in adult SLA. In B. VanPatten (Ed.), Theories in second language acquisition. An introduction (2nd ed.) (113–134). Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Véronique, G. D.
(2009) Classes lexicales et développement grammatical dans la variété de base des apprenants de français L2 et dans le développement des créoles français. AILE…LIA, 1 (1), 227–251. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Von Stutterheim, C., & Klein, W.
(2002) Quaestio and L-perspectivation. In C. F. Graumann & W. Kallmeyer (Eds.), Perspective and perspectivation in discourse (pp. 59–88). Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Von Stutterheim, C., Nüse, R., & Murcia-Serra, J.
(2002) Cross-linguistic differences in the conceptualisation of events. In H. Hasselgård, S. Johansson, B. Behrens, & C. Fabricius-Hansen (Eds.), Information structure in a cross-linguistic perspective (pp. 179–198). Rodopi. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wardhaugh, R.
(1970) The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4 (2), 123–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Willoughby, L., Linder, S., Ellis, K., & Fisher, J.
(2015) Errors and feedback in the beginner Auslan classroom. Sign Language Studies, 15 (3), 322–347. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Woll, B.
(2012) Second language acquisition of sign language. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wulff, S., & Ellis, N. C.
(2018) Usage-based approaches to second language acquisition. In D. Miller, F. Bayram, J. Rothman, & L. Serratrice (Eds.), Bilingual cognition and language (pp. 37–56). Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Zeshan, U., & Palfreyman, N.
(2020) Comparability of signed and spoken languages: Absolute and relative modality effects in cross-modal typology. Linguistic Typology, 24 (3), 527–562. DOI logoGoogle Scholar