Part of
Dimensions of L2 Performance and Proficiency: Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in SLAEdited by Alex Housen, Folkert Kuiken and Ineke Vedder
[Language Learning & Language Teaching 32] 2012
► pp. 21–46
Edited by Alex Housen, Folkert Kuiken and Ineke Vedder
[Language Learning & Language Teaching 32] 2012
► pp. 21–46
Defining and operationalising L2 complexity
This chapter takes a critical look at complexity in L2 research. We demonstrate several problems in the L2 literature in terms of how complexity has been defined and operationalised as a construct. In the first part of the chapter we try to unravel its highly complex, multidimensional nature by presenting a taxonomic model that identifies major types, dimensions and components of L2 complexity, each of which can be independently analysed or measured. The second part evaluates how complexity has been measured in empirical SLA research. Using the taxonomy of L2 complexity from part 1 as a framework, we inventory the measures of L2 complexity that have been used in a sample of forty recent L2 studies. Next we discuss the construct validity of several widely used measures of grammatical complexity by identifying their underlying logic as well as the methodological and practical challenges that their computation presents.
Cited by
Cited by 171 other publications
Abdelrahim, Azza AM
2022. Developing EFL learners’ syntactic complexity in writing: The role of eTandem communication. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 40:3 ► pp. 337 ff. 
Abrams, Zsuzsanna & David R. Byrd
2017. The effects of meaning-focused pre-tasks on beginning-level L2 writing in German: An exploratory study. Language Teaching Research 21:4 ► pp. 434 ff.
Agebjörn, Anders
2019. Chapter 7. Grammatical accuracy and complexity in a speaking proficiency test. In Teachability and Learnability across Languages [Processability Approaches to Language Acquisition Research & Teaching, 6], ► pp. 137 ff.
Mohammad Javad Ahmadian & Michael H. Long
2021. The Cambridge Handbook of Task-Based Language Teaching,
ALGHAMDI, EMAD A., PAUL GRUBA & EDUARDO VELLOSO
2022. The Relative Contribution of Language Complexity to Second Language Video Lectures Difficulty Assessment. The Modern Language Journal 106:2 ► pp. 393 ff.
Allaw, Elissa
2021. A learner corpus analysis: Effects of task complexity, task type, and L1 & L2 similarity on propositional and linguistic complexity
. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 59:4 ► pp. 569 ff.
Amelohina, Victoria, Florentina Nicolás-Conesa & Rosa M. Manchón
2020. Chapter 7. Effects of task repetition with the aid of direct and indirect written corrective feedback. In Writing and Language Learning [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 56], ► pp. 145 ff.
Asgari, Majid & Sakineh Jafari
2019. The effect of task modality and discourse mode on EFL learners’ narrative task performance. Dutch Journal of Applied Linguistics 8:2 ► pp. 270 ff.
Barrot, Jessie & Mari Karen Gabinete
2021. Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in the argumentative writing of ESL and EFL learners
. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 59:2 ► pp. 209 ff.
Barrot, Jessie S.
2018. Using the Sociocognitive-Transformative Approach in Writing Classrooms: Effects on L2 Learners’ Writing Performance. Reading & Writing Quarterly 34:2 ► pp. 187 ff.
Bartning, Inge, Klara Arvidsson & Fanny Forsberg Lundell
2015. Complexity at the phrasal level in spoken L1 and very advanced L2 French. Language, Interaction and Acquisition 6:2 ► pp. 181 ff.
Baten, Kristof & Gisela Håkansson
2015. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN GERMAN AND SWEDISH AS L2S. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 37:3 ► pp. 517 ff.
Beisbart, Claus
2021. Complexity in Multilingualism (Research). Language Learning 71:S1 ► pp. 39 ff.
Bi, Peng
2020. Revisiting genre effects on linguistic features of L2 writing: A usage‐based perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 30:3 ► pp. 429 ff.
Brezina, Vaclav & Gabriele Pallotti
2019. Morphological complexity in written L2 texts. Second Language Research 35:1 ► pp. 99 ff.
Bueno‐Alastuey, Mª Camino, Raychel Vasseur & Idoia Elola
2022. Effects of collaborative writing and peer feedback on Spanish as a foreign language writing performance. Foreign Language Annals 55:2 ► pp. 517 ff.
Bui, Gavin
2021. Influence of learners’ prior knowledge, L2 proficiency and pre-task planning on L2 lexical complexity. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 59:4 ► pp. 543 ff.
Bui, Gavin & Kevin W. H. Tai
2022. Revisiting functional adequacy and task-based language teaching in the GBA: insights from translanguaging. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education 7:1
Bui, Gavin & Rhett Yu
2021. Differentiating Task Repetition from Task Rehearsal. In Task-Based Language Teaching and Assessment, ► pp. 119 ff.
Bulté, Bram & Alex Housen
2018. Syntactic complexity in L2 writing: Individual pathways and emerging group trends. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 28:1 ► pp. 147 ff.
2020. Chapter 9. A critical appraisal of the CDST approach to investigating linguistic complexity in L2 writing development. In Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and L2 Writing Development [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 54], ► pp. 207 ff.
Byrnes, Heidi
2018. Advanced‐Level Grammatical Development in Instructed SLA. In The Handbook of Advanced Proficiency in Second Language Acquisition, ► pp. 131 ff.
Chan, Gwendoline Laurissa, Mohammad Issack Santally & Jack Whitehead
2022. Gamification as technology enabler in SEN and DHH education. Education and Information Technologies 27:7 ► pp. 9031 ff.
Chan, HuiPing, Marjolijn Verspoor & Louisa Vahtrick
2015. Dynamic Development in Speaking Versus Writing in Identical Twins. Language Learning 65:2 ► pp. 298 ff.
Chen, Xiaobin, Theodora Alexopoulou & Ianthi Tsimpli
2021. Automatic extraction of subordinate clauses and its application in second language acquisition research. Behavior Research Methods 53:2 ► pp. 803 ff.
Châu, Quang Hồng & Bram Bulté
2022. A comparison of automated and manual analyses of syntactic complexity in L2 English writing. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics
Cisneros Estupiñan, Mireya & Giohanny Olave Arias
2019. El léxico disciplinar en la educación universitaria.. Panorama Económico 27:1 ► pp. 249 ff.
Cisneros Estupiñán, Mireya, Giohanny Olave Arias & María Alicia Serna Pinto
2020. Un estudio lexicométrico a la escritura de los aspirantes a un postgrado en lingüística. Lingüística y Literatura 41:77 ► pp. 32 ff.
Collentine, Karina & Joseph Collentine
2020. Chapter 3. A corpus analysis of the structural elaboration of Spanish heritage language learners. In Variation and Evolution [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 29], ► pp. 56 ff.
Daroczy, Gabriella, Magdalena Wolska, Walt Detmar Meurers & Hans-Christoph Nuerk
2015. Word problems: a review of linguistic and numerical factors contributing to their difficulty. Frontiers in Psychology 06
De Clercq, Bastien & Alex Housen
2017. A Cross-Linguistic Perspective on Syntactic Complexity in L2 Development: Syntactic Elaboration and Diversity. The Modern Language Journal 101:2 ► pp. 315 ff.
2019. The development of morphological complexity: A cross-linguistic study of L2 French and English. Second Language Research 35:1 ► pp. 71 ff.
de la Torre García, Nuria, María Cecilia Ainciburu & Kris Buyse
2021. Morphological complexity and rated writing proficiency. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 172:2 ► pp. 290 ff.
Deng, Yaochen, Lei Lei & Dilin Liu
2021. Calling for More Consistency, Refinement, and Critical Consideration in the Use of Syntactic Complexity Measures for Writing. Applied Linguistics 42:5 ► pp. 1021 ff.
Dinh, Hanh
2022. Synergic Concepts, Lexical Idiosyncrasies, and Lexical Complexities in Bilingual Students’ Translated Texts as Efforts to Resolve Conceptual Inequivalences. Languages 7:2 ► pp. 94 ff.
Dirdal, Hildegunn
2022. Development of L2 writing complexity. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 81 ff.
Durrant, Philip & Mark Brenchley
2022. Development of Noun Phrase Complexity Across Genres in Children’s Writing. Applied Linguistics
Dutra, Deise P., Jessica M.S. Queiroz, Luciana D. de Macedo, Danilo D. Costa & Elisa Mattos
2020. Adjectives as nominal pre-modifiers in chemistry and applied linguistics research articles. In Advances in Corpus-based Research on Academic Writing [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 95], ► pp. 206 ff.
EGUCHI, MASAKI & KRISTOPHER KYLE
2020. Continuing to Explore the Multidimensional Nature of Lexical Sophistication: The Case of Oral Proficiency Interviews. The Modern Language Journal 104:2 ► pp. 381 ff.
Ehret, Katharina & Benedikt Szmrecsanyi
2019. Compressing learner language: An information-theoretic measure of complexity in SLA production data. Second Language Research 35:1 ► pp. 23 ff.
Ellis, Nick C.
2016. SALIENCE, COGNITION, LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY, AND COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:2 ► pp. 341 ff.
2017. Cognition, Corpora, and Computing: Triangulating Research in Usage-Based Language Learning. Language Learning 67:S1 ► pp. 40 ff.
Farahanynia, Mahsa & Mohammad Khatib
2022. Participatory structure of planning and cognitive task complexity in L2 oral performance: a processing perspective. The Language Learning Journal 50:6 ► pp. 777 ff.
Fathi, Jalil & Masoud Rahimi
2022. Examining the impact of flipped classroom on writing complexity, accuracy, and fluency: a case of EFL students. Computer Assisted Language Learning 35:7 ► pp. 1668 ff.
Fogal, Gary G. & Richard S. Pinner
2019. Exploring Literary Texts as a Tool for Developing L2 Oral Proficiency. In Literature, Spoken Language and Speaking Skills in Second Language Learning, ► pp. 202 ff.
Fortune, Tara W. & Zhongkui Ju
2017. Assessing and Exploring the Oral Proficiency of Young Mandarin Immersion Learners. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 37 ► pp. 264 ff.
Frempong, Clara Ofosua, Gifty Edna Anani, Henry Kwao Ayitey & Ebenezer Agbaglo
2022. Pre-modification of noun phrases in the writings of students in Ghanaian colleges of education. International Journal of Research Studies in Education 11:5
Gaillat, Thomas
2022. Investigating the scopes of textual metrics for learner level discrimination and learner analytics. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 21 ff.
Gao, Jianwu & Shuang Ma
2021. LEARNING CONDITION, LINGUISTIC COMPLEXITY, AND FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER IN SEMIARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE LEARNING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:2 ► pp. 355 ff.
García-Amaya, Lorenzo
2023. Investigating the relation between L2 pauses, syntactic complexity, and pause location: Longitudinal data from L2-Spanish study-abroad learners. Second Language Research ► pp. 026765832311526 ff.
Gené-Gil, Maria, Maria Juan-Garau & Joana Salazar-Noguera
2015. Development of EFL writing over three years in secondary education: CLIL and non-CLIL settings. The Language Learning Journal 43:3 ► pp. 286 ff.
Gilquin, Gaëtanelle
2019. Light verb constructions in spoken L2 English. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 5:2 ► pp. 181 ff.
Granados, Adrián, Antonio Lorenzo-Espejo & Francisco Lorenzo
2022. A portrait of academic literacy in mid-adolescence: a computational longitudinal account of cognitive academic language proficiency during secondary school. Language and Education ► pp. 1 ff.
2022. Evidence for the interdependence hypothesis: a longitudinal study of biliteracy development in a CLIL/bilingual setting. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 25:8 ► pp. 3005 ff.
Granena, Gisela
2019. COGNITIVE APTITUDES AND L2 SPEAKING PROFICIENCY. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:2 ► pp. 313 ff.
Granena, Gisela & Yucel Yilmaz
2021. Corrective Feedback and Grammatical Complexity: A Research Synthesis. In The Cambridge Handbook of Corrective Feedback in Second Language Learning and Teaching, ► pp. 754 ff.
Hasnain, Shazia & Santoshi Halder
2022. Intricacies of the Multifaceted Triad-Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency: A Review of Studies on Measures of Oral Production. Journal of Education ► pp. 002205742211013 ff.
Heine, Lena, Madeleine Domenech, Lisa Otto, Astrid Neumann, Michael Krelle, Dominik Leiss, Dietmar Höttecke, Timo Ehmke & Knut Schwippert
2018. Modellierung sprachlicher Anforderungen in Testaufgaben verschiedener Unterrichtsfächer: Theoretische und empirische Grundlagen. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Linguistik 2018:69 ► pp. 69 ff.
Housen, Alex
2014. Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff.
2021. Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff.
Housen, Alex, Bastien De Clercq, Folkert Kuiken & Ineke Vedder
2019. Multiple approaches to complexity in second language research. Second Language Research 35:1 ► pp. 3 ff.
Housen, Alex & Hannelore Simoens
2016. INTRODUCTION: COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES ON DIFFICULTY AND COMPLEXITY IN L2 ACQUISITION. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:2 ► pp. 163 ff.
Hu, Renfen, Jifeng Wu & Xiaofei Lu
2022. Word‐Combination‐Based Measures of Phraseological Diversity, Sophistication, and Complexity and Their Relationship to Second Language Chinese Proficiency and Writing Quality. Language Learning 72:4 ► pp. 1128 ff.
Huang, Yan, Akira Murakami, Theodora Alexopoulou & Anna Korhonen
2021. Subcategorization frame identification for learner English. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 26:2 ► pp. 187 ff.
Ivaska, Ilmari & Silvia Bernardini
2020. Constrained language use in Finnish: A corpus-driven approach. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 43:1 ► pp. 33 ff.
Jiang, Jingyang, Peng Bi, Nana Xie & Haitao Liu
2021. Phraseological complexity and low- and intermediate-level L2 learners’ writing quality. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 0:0
Jiang, Michael Yi-Chao, Morris Siu-Yung Jong, Na Wu, Bin Shen, Ching-Sing Chai, Wilfred Wing-Fat Lau & Biyun Huang
2022. Integrating Automatic Speech Recognition Technology Into Vocabulary Learning in a Flipped English Class for Chinese College Students. Frontiers in Psychology 13
Johnson, Mark D & Mahmoud Abdi Tabari
2022. Task Planning and Oral L2 Production: A Research Synthesis and Meta-analysis. Applied Linguistics 43:6 ► pp. 1143 ff.
Joseph, John E.
2021. Why Does Language Complexity Resist Measurement?. Frontiers in Communication 6
Kekki, Niina & Ilmari Ivaska
2022. The use of synonymous adjectives by learners of Finnish as a second language. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 8:1 ► pp. 67 ff.
Khushik, Ghulam Abbas & Ari Huhta
2020. Investigating Syntactic Complexity in EFL Learners' Writing across Common European Framework of Reference Levels A1, A2, and B1. Applied Linguistics 41:4 ► pp. 506 ff.
2022. Syntactic complexity in Finnish-background EFL learners’ writing at CEFR levels A1–B2. European Journal of Applied Linguistics 10:1 ► pp. 142 ff.
Kim, Hyunah
2017. 재미 한국어 계승어 학습자 작문에 나타난 통사 복잡성: Syntactic complexity in the writing of Korean heritage learners in the United States. The Korean Language in America 21:2 ► pp. 186 ff.
Kisselev, Olesya, Aleksandr Klimov & Mihail Kopotev
2022. Syntactic complexity measures as linguistic correlates of proficiency level in learner Russian. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 51 ff.
KISSELEV, OLESYA, ROSSINA SOYAN, DMITRII PASTUSHENKOV & JASON MERRILL
2022. Measuring Writing Development and Proficiency Gains Using Indices of Lexical and Syntactic Complexity: Evidence From Longitudinal Russian Learner Corpus Data. The Modern Language Journal 106:4 ► pp. 798 ff.
Koizumi, Rie, Yo In'nami & Eun Hee Jeon
2022. Chapter 10. L2 speaking and its internal correlates. In Understanding L2 Proficiency [Bilingual Processing and Acquisition, 13], ► pp. 307 ff.
Kreyer, Rolf & Steffen Schaub
2018. The development of phrasal complexity in German intermediate learners of English. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 4:1 ► pp. 82 ff.
Kuiken, Folkert
2022. Linguistic complexity in second language acquisition. Linguistics Vanguard 0:0
Kuiken, Folkert & Ineke Vedder
2019. Syntactic complexity across proficiency and languages: L2 and L1 writing in Dutch, Italian and Spanish. International Journal of Applied Linguistics
2022. Chapter 14. Speaking. In Instructed Second Language Acquisition Research Methods [Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 3], ► pp. 329 ff.
2022. Measurement of functional adequacy in different learning contexts. TASK. Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning 2:1 ► pp. 8 ff.
Kuiken, Folkert, Ineke Vedder, Alex Housen & Bastien De Clercq
2019. Variation in syntactic complexity: Introduction. International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Kyle, Kristopher & Scott Crossley
2017. Assessing syntactic sophistication in L2 writing: A usage-based approach. Language Testing 34:4 ► pp. 513 ff.
KYLE, KRISTOPHER & SCOTT A. CROSSLEY
2018. Measuring Syntactic Complexity in L2 Writing Using Fine-Grained Clausal and Phrasal Indices. The Modern Language Journal 102:2 ► pp. 333 ff.
Lahmann, Cornelia, Rasmus Steinkrauss & Monika S. Schmid
2016. Factors Affecting Grammatical and Lexical Complexity of Long-Term L2 Speakers’ Oral Proficiency. Language Learning 66:2 ► pp. 354 ff.
2019. Measuring linguistic complexity in long‐term L2 speakers of English and L1 attriters of German. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 29:2 ► pp. 173 ff.
Lan, Ge, Xiaorui Li & Qiusi Zhang
2022. Revisiting Grammatical Complexity in L2 Writing via Exploratory Factor Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology 13
Lan, Ge, Xiaofei Pan, Yachao Sun & Yuan Lu
2023. Part of speech tagging of grammatical features related to L2 Chinese development: A case analysis of Stanza in the L2 writing context. Frontiers in Psychology 14
Lecouvet, Mathieu
2021. Non-canonical word order as a measure of syntactic complexity in advanced L2 German. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 0:0
Leufkens, Sterre
2022. Measuring redundancy: the relation between concord and complexity. Linguistics Vanguard 0:0
Leńko-Szymańska, Agnieszka & Sandra Götz
2022. Complexity, accuracy and fluency in learner corpus research. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 1 ff.
Li, Xuelan & Huiping Zhang
2021. Developmental Features of Lexical Richness in English Writings by Chinese L3 Beginner Learners. Frontiers in Psychology 12
Liao, Jianling
2021. The effects of linguistic measures in the analysis of L2 Chinese descriptive writing. Chinese as a Second Language (漢語教學研究—美國中文教師學會學報). The journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, USA 56:2 ► pp. 118 ff.
Lin, Xiaowen, Muhammad Afzaal & Hessah Saleh Aldayel
2023. Syntactic complexity in legal translated texts and the use of plain English: a corpus-based study. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10:1
Lintunen, Pekka & Mari Mäkilä
2014. Measuring Syntactic Complexity in Spoken and Written Learner Language: Comparing the Incomparable?. Research in Language 12:4 ► pp. 377 ff.
Lu, Xiaofei & Renfen Hu
2021. Sense-aware lexical sophistication indices and their relationship to second language writing quality. Behavior Research Methods 54:3 ► pp. 1444 ff.
Lyashevskaya, Olga, Olga Vinogradova & Anna Scherbakova
2022. Accuracy, syntactic complexity and task type at play in examination writing. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 241 ff.
Lyashevskaya, Olga Nikolaevna, Julia Vyacheslavovna Pyzhak & Olga Il'inichna Vinogradova
2022. Word-formation complexity: a learner corpus-based study. Russian Journal of Linguistics 26:2 ► pp. 471 ff.
Mavrou, Irini & María Cecilia Ainciburu
2019. Medidas de longitud en la investigación empírica de
ASL. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics 32:1 ► pp. 125 ff.
Michel, Marije C.
2013. The Use of Conjunctions in Cognitively Simple Versus Complex Oral L2 Tasks. The Modern Language Journal 97:1 ► pp. 178 ff.
Milani, Alfredo, Valentina Franzoni & Giulio Biondi
2021. Parsing Tools for Italian Phraseological Units. In Computational Science and Its Applications – ICCSA 2021 [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 12955], ► pp. 427 ff.
Morton, Tom
2016. Commentary on Young Dissertation Summary. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 4:2 ► pp. 274 ff.
Mostafa, Tamanna, Scott A. Crossley & YouJin Kim
2021. Predictors of English as second language learners’ oral proficiency development in a classroom context. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 31:3 ► pp. 526 ff.
Murakami, Akira & Theodora Alexopoulou
2016. L1 INFLUENCE ON THE ACQUISITION ORDER OF ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:3 ► pp. 365 ff.
Neary-Sundquist, Colleen A.
2017. Syntactic complexity at multiple proficiency levels of L2 German speech. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 27:1 ► pp. 242 ff.
Nerušilová, Terezie
2022. Development of students’ spoken language in an online French course: Presentation of continuing doctoral research. European Journal of Applied Linguistics 10:2 ► pp. 236 ff.
North, Kai, Marcos Zampieri & Matthew Shardlow
2023. Lexical Complexity Prediction: An Overview. ACM Computing Surveys 55:9 ► pp. 1 ff.
Ochoa Sierra , Ligia & Alberto Cueva Lobelle
2020. COMPLEJIDAD LINGÜÍSTICA: REVISIÓN BIBLIOGRÁFICA. Signo y Pensamiento 39:77
Palfreyman, David M. & Suha Karaki
2019. Lexical sophistication across languages: a preliminary study of undergraduate writing in Arabic (L1) and English (L2). International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 22:8 ► pp. 992 ff.
Pallotti, Gabriele
2015. A simple view of linguistic complexity. Second Language Research 31:1 ► pp. 117 ff.
Paquot, Magali
2019. The phraseological dimension in interlanguage complexity research. Second Language Research 35:1 ► pp. 121 ff.
Paquot, Magali, Dana Gablasova, Vaclav Brezina & Hubert Naets
2022. Phraseological complexity in EFL learners’ spoken production across proficiency levels. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 115 ff.
PARK, HAE IN, MEGAN SOLON, CARLY HENDERSON & MARZIEH DEHGHAN–CHALESHTORI
2020. The Roles of Working Memory and Oral Language Abilities in Elicited Imitation Performance. The Modern Language Journal 104:1 ► pp. 133 ff.
París, Luis, Maria Alejandra Celi, Ángel Tabullo & Mahayana C. Godoy
2022. Not all English Resultative Constructions (ERCs) are equal: The acquisition of ERC by Spanish speakers. Language Acquisition ► pp. 1 ff.
Plonsky, Luke & YouJin Kim
2016. Task-Based Learner Production: A Substantive and Methodological Review. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 36 ► pp. 73 ff.
Pojslova, Blanka
2021. The effect of two feedback strategies on EFL writing quality from the perspective of syntactic complexity. CASALC Review 11:1 ► pp. 69 ff.
Polat, Nihat, Laura Mahalingappa & Rae L Mancilla
2020. Longitudinal Growth Trajectories of Written Syntactic Complexity: The Case of Turkish Learners in an Intensive English Program. Applied Linguistics 41:5 ► pp. 688 ff.
Polio, Charlene & Hyung‐Jo Yoon
2018. The reliability and validity of automated tools for examining variation in syntactic complexity across genres. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 28:1 ► pp. 165 ff.
Pu, Liping, Renquan Heng & Cong Cao
2022. The effects of genre on the syntactic complexity of argumentative and expository writing by Chinese EFL learners. Frontiers in Psychology 13
Pérez-Paredes, Pascual & María Belén Díez-Bedmar
2019. Researching learner language through POS keyword and syntactic complexity analyses. In Learner Corpora and Language Teaching [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 92], ► pp. 101 ff.
Pérez-Vidal, Carmen & Elisa Barquin
2014. Chapter 9. Comparing progress in academic writing after formal instruction and study abroad. In Language Acquisition in Study Abroad and Formal Instruction Contexts [AILA Applied Linguistics Series, 13], ► pp. 217 ff.
Qian, Leyi, Yan Cheng & Yali Zhao
2021. Use of Linguistic Complexity in Writing Among Chinese EFL Learners in High-Stakes Tests: Insights From a Corpus of TOEFL iBT. Frontiers in Psychology 12
Qin, Wenjuan & Xizi Zhang
2022. Do EFL learners use different grammatical complexity features in writing across registers?. Reading and Writing
Rahayu, Famala Eka Sanhadi
2021. Lexical Complexity of Students' Oral Performance on PechaKucha. PAROLE: Journal of Linguistics and Education 11:2 ► pp. 189 ff.
Rivard, Léonard P. & Ndeye R. Gueye
2023. Syntactic complexity and connector use in the summary writing of L1 and L2 Canadian students. Journal of French Language Studies ► pp. 1 ff.
Roothooft, Hanne, Amparo Lázaro-Ibarrola & Bram Bulté
2022. Task repetition and corrective feedback via models and direct corrections among young EFL writers: Draft quality and task motivation. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882210820 ff.
Rosmawati, R.
2020. Chapter 5. Profiling the dynamic changes of syntactic complexity in L2 academic writing. In Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and L2 Writing Development [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 54], ► pp. 109 ff.
Révész, Andrea
2021. Methodological Approaches to Investigating Task-Based Language Teaching. In The Cambridge Handbook of Task-Based Language Teaching, ► pp. 605 ff.
2021. Exploring task-based cognitive processes. TASK. Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning 1:2 ► pp. 266 ff.
Révész, Andrea, Nektaria-Efstathia Kourtali & Diana Mazgutova
2017. Effects of Task Complexity on L2 Writing Behaviors and Linguistic Complexity. Language Learning 67:1 ► pp. 208 ff.
Sadri Mirdamadi, Farhad & Nivja H. De Jong
2015. The effect of syntactic complexity on fluency: Comparing actives and passives in L1 and L2 speech. Second Language Research 31:1 ► pp. 105 ff.
Shahmirzadi, Niloufar
2020. CAF Profiles of Iranian Writers: What We Learn from Them and Their Limitations. In The Assessment of L2 Written English across the MENA Region, ► pp. 93 ff.
Smirnova, Elizaveta
2022. Clausal complexity of expert and student writing: a corpus-based analysis of papers in social sciences. Language Learning in Higher Education 12:2 ► pp. 453 ff.
Solnyshkina, Marina Ivanovna, Danielle S. McNamara & Radif Rifkatovich Zamaletdinov
2022. Natural language processing and discourse complexity studies. Russian Journal of Linguistics 26:2 ► pp. 317 ff.
Spada, Nina
2022. Reflecting on task-based language teaching from an Instructed SLA perspective. Language Teaching 55:1 ► pp. 74 ff.
Sun, He, Weimin Toh & Rasmus Steinkrauss
2020. Instructional strategies and linguistic features of kindergarten teachers’ shared book reading: The case of Singapore. Applied Psycholinguistics 41:2 ► pp. 427 ff.
Sun, Peijian Paul
2020. Speech Competence and Speech Performance: A Literature Review. In Chinese as a Second Language Multilinguals’ Speech Competence and Speech Performance, ► pp. 31 ff.
Sánchez, Alberto J., Rosa M. Manchón & Roger Gilabert
2020. Chapter 6. The effects of task repetition across modalities and proficiency levels. In Writing and Language Learning [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 56], ► pp. 121 ff.
Tabari, Mahmoud Abdi, Sima Khezrlou & Yu Tian
2022. Task complexity, task repetition, and L2 writing complexity: exploring interactions in the TBLT domain. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 0:0
Tagarelli, Kaitlyn M., Simón Ruiz, José Luis Moreno Vega & Patrick Rebuschat
2016. VARIABILITY IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:2 ► pp. 293 ff.
Thewissen, Jennifer & Alena V. Anishchanka
2022. Interaction between grammatical accuracy and syntactic complexity at different proficiency levels. In Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Learner Corpus Research [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 104], ► pp. 209 ff.
Torres, Julio
2023. Heritage language learners’ written texts across pair types and interaction mode. Language Teaching Research 27:1 ► pp. 5 ff.
Tragant, Elsa, Raquel Serrano & Àngels Llanes
2017. Learning English during the summer: A comparison of two domestic programs for pre-adolescents. Language Teaching Research 21:5 ► pp. 546 ff.
Uzun, Kutay
2022. Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency in Second Language Writing. In The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, ► pp. 1 ff.
Vandeweerd, Nathan, Alex Housen & Magali Paquot
2021. Applying phraseological complexity measures to L2 French. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 7:2 ► pp. 197 ff.
2022. Comparing the longitudinal development of phraseological complexity across oral and written tasks. Studies in Second Language Acquisition ► pp. 1 ff.
Vandommele, Goedele, Koen Van Gorp, Kris Van den Branden & Sven De Maeyer
2022. Assessing the Development of L2 Speaking Skills in Inside-School and Outside-School Settings Through Growth Modelling. Applied Linguistics 43:6 ► pp. 1094 ff.
Vasylets, Olena, Roger Gilabert & Rosa M. Manchón
2017. The Effects of Mode and Task Complexity on Second Language Production. Language Learning 67:2 ► pp. 394 ff.
Vercellotti, Mary Lou
2019. Finding variation: assessing the development of syntactic complexity in ESL Speech. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 29:2 ► pp. 233 ff.
VYATKINA, NINA
2012. The Development of Second Language Writing Complexity in Groups and Individuals: A Longitudinal Learner Corpus Study. The Modern Language Journal 96:4 ► pp. 576 ff.
2013. Specific Syntactic Complexity: Developmental Profiling of Individuals Based on an Annotated Learner Corpus. The Modern Language Journal 97:S1 ► pp. 11 ff.
Wang, Gui, Hui Wang, Xinyi Sun, Nan Wang & Li Wang
2023. Linguistic complexity in scientific writing: A large-scale diachronic study from 1821 to 1920. Scientometrics 128:1 ► pp. 441 ff.
Wang, Liping & Lawrence Jun Zhang
2019. Chapter 8. Peter Skehan’s influence in research on task difficulty. In Researching L2 Task Performance and Pedagogy [Task-Based Language Teaching, 13], ► pp. 183 ff.
Wang, Yu & Shoucun Tao
2020. Chapter 3. The dynamic co-development of linguistic and discourse-semantic complexity in advanced L2 writing. In Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and L2 Writing Development [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 54], ► pp. 49 ff.
Weiss, Zarah, Kim Lange-Schubert, Barbara Geist & Detmar Meurers
2022. Sprachliche Komplexität im Unterricht. Zeitschrift für germanistische Linguistik 50:1 ► pp. 159 ff.
Wijers, Martje
2018. The Role of Variation in L2 Syntactic Complexity: A Case Study on Subordinate Clauses in Swedish as a Foreign Language. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 41:1 ► pp. 75 ff.
Wulff, Stefanie & Stefan Th. Gries
2019. Particle Placement in Learner Language. Language Learning 69:4 ► pp. 873 ff.
Yalçın, Şebnem & Nina Spada
2016. LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND GRAMMATICAL DIFFICULTY. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:2 ► pp. 239 ff.
YOW, W. QUIN, JESSICA S. H. TAN & SUZANNE FLYNN
2018. Code-switching as a marker of linguistic competence in bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21:5 ► pp. 1075 ff.
Yu, Qiaona
2021. An Organic Syntactic Complexity Measure for the Chinese Language: The TC-Unit. Applied Linguistics 42:1 ► pp. 60 ff.
Zalbidea, Janire
2021. ON THE SCOPE OF OUTPUT IN SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:1 ► pp. 50 ff.
Zalbidea, Janire & Cristina Sanz
2020. Does learner cognition count on modality? Working memory and L2 morphosyntactic achievement across oral and written tasks. Applied Psycholinguistics 41:5 ► pp. 1171 ff.
Zareva, Alla
2019. Lexical complexity of academic presentations. Journal of Second Language Studies 2:1 ► pp. 71 ff.
2019. Providing feedback on the lexical use of ESP students’ academic presentations: teacher training considerations. In ESP teaching and teacher education: current theories and practices, ► pp. 63 ff.
2020. Lexical Profiles of Student Academic Presentations. In Speech Accommodation in Student Presentations, ► pp. 41 ff.
Zhan, Ju, Qiyu Sun & Lawrence Jun Zhang
2021. Effects of manipulating writing task complexity on learners’ performance in completing vocabulary and syntactic tasks. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882110243 ff.
Zhang, Chao
2022. Multidimensional interaction of L2 writing fluency and cohesion: A complexity theory perspective. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 40:4 ► pp. 397 ff.
Zhang, Xiaopeng
2022. The relationship between lexical use and L2 writing quality: A case of two genres. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 32:3 ► pp. 371 ff.
Zhang, Xiaopeng & Chunping Mai
2021. Impact of constructional complexity and intralingual influence on the effectiveness of skewed input. Language Teaching Research ► pp. 136216882098139 ff.
Çöltekin, Çağrı & Taraka Rama
2022. What do complexity measures measure? Correlating and validating corpus-based measures of morphological complexity. Linguistics Vanguard 0:0
刘, 洁
2022. Comparative Analysis of English Language Ability in IELTS Writing—From Perspective of Syntactic Complexity. Overseas English Testing: Pedagogy and Research 04:02 ► pp. 45 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 3 march 2023. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.