Visible learning and visible motivation
Exploring challenging goals and feedback in language education
Vera Busse | Carl von Ossietzky Universität, Germany
The chapter approaches motivation from a practitioners’ perspective and tries to illustrate how motivational theories can help language teachers working in higher education to gain deeper insights into students’ learning behavior. Particular attention is paid to the importance of setting challenging short-term goals and providing ample opportunities for practice and feedback, in combination with nourishing long-term language goals in students’ ideal self-beliefs. The chapter points towards the potential of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) in this respect, cautioning, however, that feedback becomes even more important when such a challenging teaching approach is chosen. The chapter concludes by introducing a question cycle that encourages teachers to explore their students’ motivation and to identify possible motivational trouble zones.
References (92)
References
Anderson, R., Manoogian, S.T., & Reznick, J.S. (1976). The undermining and enhancing of intrinsic motivation in preschool children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 915–922.
Arnold, J., Puchta, H., & Rinvolucri, M. (2007). Imagine that! mental imagery in the EFL classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman.
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1986). Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 92–113.
Beauchamp, M.R., Bray, S.R., & Albinson, J.G. (2002). Pre-competition imagery, self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 697–705.
Becker, L.J. (1978). Joint effect of feedback and goal setting on performance: A field study of residential energy conservation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 428–433.
Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 102–118.
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2008). The value of written corrective feedback for migrant and international students. Language Teaching Research, 12, 409–431.
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2010a). The contribution of written corrective feedback to language development: a ten month investigation. Applied Linguistics, 31, 193–214.
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2010b). Raising the linguistic accuracy level of advanced L2 writers with written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 19, 207–217.
Boggiano, A.K., Main, D.S., & Katz, P.A. (1988). Children’s preference for challenge: The role of perceived competence and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 134–141.
Britner, S.L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 485–499.
Burns, M.K. (2002). Comprehensive system of assessment to intervention using curriculum-based assessment. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38, 8–13.
Busse, V. (2013a). An exploration of motivation and self-beliefs of first year students of German. System, 41, 379–398.
Busse, V. (2013b). How do first-year students of German perceive feedback practices at university? A motivational analysis. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 406–424.
Busse, V., & Walter, C. (2013). Foreign language learning motivation in higher education: A longitudinal study of motivational changes and their causes. The Modern Language Journal, 97, 435–456.
Busse, V., & Williams, M. (2010). Why German? Motivation of students studying German at English universities. Language Learning Journal, 38, 67–85.
Byrnes, H. (Ed.). (2008). Perspectives. The Modern Language Journal, 92, 284–312.
Byrnes, H., Maxim, H.H., & Norris, J.M. (2010). Main text. The Modern Language Journal, 94, 1–202.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Nakamura, J. (1989). The dynamics of intrinsic motivation: A study of adolesents. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (Vol. 3, pp. 44–71). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Cumming, J. (2008). Investigating the relationship between exercise imagery, leisure-time exercise behavior, and self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 184–198.
Czsikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1993). Talented teenagers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Danner, F.W., & Lonky, E. (1981). A cognitive-developmental approach to the effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 52, 1043–1052.
Deci, E.L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 105–115.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York, NY: Plenum.
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.M. (2013a). Future challenges for English-medium instruction at the tertiary level. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster & J.M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities (pp. 213–222). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.M. (2013b). English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78, 273–284.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dörnyei, Z. (2008). New ways of motivating foreign language learners: Generating visions. Links, 38, 3–4.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9–42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language learners: Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 2, 203–229.
Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. (2014). Motivation and vision for language learners and teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation, 2nd edn. Harlow: Longman.
Duijnhouwer, H., Prins, F.J., & Stokking, K.M. (2010). Progress feedback effects on students’ writing mastery goal, self-efficacy beliefs, and performance. Educational Research and Evaluation, 16, 53–74.
Dunkel, C.S., & Anthis, K.S. (2001). The role of possible selves in identity formation: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 765–776.
Ellis, R., Sheen, Y., Murakami, M., & Takashima, H. (2008). The effects of focused and unfocused written corrective feedback in an English as a foreign language context. System, 36, 353–371.
Erez, M. (1977). Feedback: A necessary condition for the goal setting-performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 624–627.
Fisher, C.D. (1978). The effects of personal control, competence, and extrinsic reward systems on intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 21, 273–288.
Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: E. Arnold.
Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Gickling, E.E. (1984). Operationalizing academic learning time for low achieving and handicapped mainstreamed students. In Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association. Jackson Hole, WY.
Hadfield, J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). Motivating learning. Harlow: Longman.
Harter, S. (1974). Pleasure derived by children from cognitive challenge and mastery. Child Development, 45, 661–669.
Hattie, J.A. (2009). Visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hattie, J.A. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hattie, J.A., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81–112.
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340.
Hirsh, D., & Nation, P. (1992). What vocabulary size is needed to read unsimplified texts for pleasure? Reading in a Foreign Language, 8, 698–696.
Hunt, J.M. (1966). The epigenesis of intrinsic motivation and early cognitive learning. In R.N. Haber (Ed.), Current research in motivation. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Hunt, J.M. (1975). Implications of sequestional order and hierarchy in early psychological development. In B.Z. Friedlander, G.M. Sterritt & G.E. Kirk (Eds.), Exceptional infant(Vol. 3). New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39, 83–101.
Kaplan, R.B., Grabe, W., Swain, M., & Tucker, G.R. (2002). The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kluger, A.N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284.
Koestner, R., Ryan, R.M., Bernieri, F., & Holt, K. (1984). Setting limits on children’s behavior: the differential effects of controlling vs. informational styles on intrinsic motivation and creativity. Journal of Personality, 52, 233–248.
Kormos, J. (2012). The role of individual differences in L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21, 390–403.
Lantolf, J., & Pavlenko, A. (2001). (S)econd (L)anguage (A)ctivity theory: Understanding second language learners as people. In M. Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning (pp. 172–182). London: Longman.
Latham, G.P., & Locke, E.A. (2006). Enhancing the benefits and overcoming the pitfalls of goal setting. Organizational Dynamics, 35, 332–340.
Latham, G.P., & Locke, E.A. (2007). New developments in and directions for goal-setting research. European Psychologist, 12, 290–300.
Lee, I. (2008). Student reactions to teacher feedback in two Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 144–164.
Locke, E.A. (1996). Motivation through conscious goal-setting. Applied & Preventive Psychology, 5, 117–124.
Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717.
Magid, M., & Chan, L. (2011). Motivating English learners by helping them visualise their Ideal L2 Self: lessons from two motivational programmes. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1–13.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.
Martin, A.J. (2006). Personal bests (PBs): a proposed multidimensional model and empirical analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 803–825.
Matsui, T., Matsui, K., & Ohnishi, R. (1990). Mechanisms underlying math self-efficacy learning of college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 225–238.
MLA Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign Languages. (2007). Foreign languages and higher education: new structures for a changed world. New York: Modern Language Association of America. Available at [URL] (Last retrieved on 30 January 2014).
Munroe-Chandler, K., Hall, C., & G., F. (2008). Playing with confidence: The relationship between imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy in youth soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 1539–1546.
Noels, K.A. (2001). New orientations in language learning motivation: towards a model of intrinsic, extrinsic and integrative orientations and motivation. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 43–68). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i.
Pajares, F., & Johnson, M.J. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of entering high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 33, 163–175.
Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during a learning activity. Journal of educational psychology, 98, 209–218.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J. (2004). Enhancing students’ engagement by increasing teachers’ autonomy support. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 147–169.
Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centred therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C., & Dymond, R. (1954). Psychotherapy and personality change. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Ryan, R.M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450–461.
Schunk, D.H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26, 207–231.
Schunk, D.H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 159–172.
Schunk, D.H., & Swartz, C. (1993). Goals and progress feedback: effects on self-efficacy and writing achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 337–354.
Shapira, Z. (1976). Expectancy determinants of intrinsically motivated behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 1235–1244.
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 255–283.
Sheen, Y. (2011). Corrective feedback, individual differences and second language learning. New York, NY: Springer.
Sheen, Y., Wright, D., & Moldawa, A. (2009). Differential effects of focused and unfocused written correction on the accurate use of grammatical forms by adult ESL learners. System, 37, 556–569.
Shohamy, E. (2013). A critical perspective on the use of English as a medium of instruction at universities. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster & J.M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and beyond: mediating acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In J.P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 97–114). Oxford: OUP.
Taylor, F., Busse, V., Gagova, L., Marsden, E., & Roosken, B. (2012). Identity in foreign language learning and teaching: Why listening to our students’ and teachers’ vocies really matters. In British Council ELT Research Papers. Retrieved April 04, 2013 at [URL]
Tremblay, P.F., & Gardner, R.C. (1995). Expanding the motivational construct in language learning. Modern Language Journal, 79, 505–520.
Waterman, A.S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18, 341–358.
Wesch, N.N., Milne, M.I., Burke, S.M., & Hall, C.R. (2006). Self-efficacy and imagery use in older adult exercisers. European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 197–203.
Williams, M., & Burden, R.L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cited by (2)
Cited by two other publications
BUSSE, VERA
2017.
Plurilingualism in Europe: Exploring Attitudes Toward English and Other European Languages Among Adolescents in Bulgaria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain.
The Modern Language Journal 101:3
► pp. 566 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 20 december 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.