Article published in:
Motivation and Foreign Language Learning: From theory to practice
Edited by David Lasagabaster, Aintzane Doiz and Juan Manuel Sierra
[Language Learning & Language Teaching 40] 2014
► pp. 157–174

Visible learning and visible motivation

Exploring challenging goals and feedback in language education

| Carl von Ossietzky Universität, Germany
The chapter approaches motivation from a practitioners’ perspective and tries to illustrate how motivational theories can help language teachers working in higher education to gain deeper insights into students’ learning behavior. Particular attention is paid to the importance of setting challenging short-term goals and providing ample opportunities for practice and feedback, in combination with nourishing long-term language goals in students’ ideal self-beliefs. The chapter points towards the potential of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) in this respect, cautioning, however, that feedback becomes even more important when such a challenging teaching approach is chosen. The chapter concludes by introducing a question cycle that encourages teachers to explore their students’ motivation and to identify possible motivational trouble zones.
Keywords: CLIL, feedback, goal-setting, motivation, task-challenge
Published online: 31 July 2014
https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.40.08bus
References

References

Anderson, R., Manoogian, S.T., & Reznick, J.S.
(1976) The undermining and enhancing of intrinsic motivation in preschool children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 915–922. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, J., Puchta, H., & Rinvolucri, M.
(2007) Imagine that! mental imagery in the EFL classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bandura, A.
(1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D.
(1986) Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 92–113. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Beauchamp, M.R., Bray, S.R., & Albinson, J.G.
(2002) Pre-competition imagery, self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 697–705. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Becker, L.J.
(1978) Joint effect of feedback and goal setting on performance: A field study of residential energy conservation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 428–433. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bitchener, J.
(2008) Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 102–118. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U.
(2008) The value of written corrective feedback for migrant and international students. Language Teaching Research, 12, 409–431. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010a) The contribution of written corrective feedback to language development: a ten month investigation. Applied Linguistics, 31, 193–214. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2010b) Raising the linguistic accuracy level of advanced L2 writers with written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 19, 207–217. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Boggiano, A.K., Main, D.S., & Katz, P.A.
(1988) Children’s preference for challenge: The role of perceived competence and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 134–141. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Britner, S.L., & Pajares, F.
(2006) Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 485–499. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Burns, M.K.
(2002) Comprehensive system of assessment to intervention using curriculum-based assessment. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38, 8–13. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Busse, V.
(2013a) An exploration of motivation and self-beliefs of first year students of German. System, 41, 379–398. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2013b) How do first-year students of German perceive feedback practices at university? A motivational analysis. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 406–424. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Busse, V., & Walter, C.
(2013) Foreign language learning motivation in higher education: A longitudinal study of motivational changes and their causes. The Modern Language Journal, 97, 435–456. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Busse, V., & Williams, M.
(2010) Why German? Motivation of students studying German at English universities. Language Learning Journal, 38, 67–85. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Byrnes, H.
(Ed.) (2008) Perspectives. The Modern Language Journal, 92, 284–312. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Byrnes, H., Maxim, H.H., & Norris, J.M.
(2010) Main text. The Modern Language Journal, 94, 1–202. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Nakamura, J.
(1989) The dynamics of intrinsic motivation: A study of adolesents. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (Vol. 3, pp. 44–71). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Cumming, J.
(2008) Investigating the relationship between exercise imagery, leisure-time exercise behavior, and self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 184–198. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Czsikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S.
(1993) Talented teenagers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dafouz Milne, E., & Núñez Perucha, B.
(2010) Metadiscursive devices in university lectures: A contrastive analysis of L1 and L2 teacher performance. In C. Dalton-Puffer, T. Nikula & U. Smit (Eds.), Language use and language learning in CLIL classrooms (pp. 213–231). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Danner, F.W., & Lonky, E.
(1981) A cognitive-developmental approach to the effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 52, 1043–1052. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E.L.
(1971) Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 105–115. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M.
(1985) Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York, NY: Plenum. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.M.
(2013a) Future challenges for English-medium instruction at the tertiary level. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster & J.M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities (pp. 213–222). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
(2013b) English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z.
(1994) Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78, 273–284. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2005) The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
(2008) New ways of motivating foreign language learners: Generating visions. Links, 38, 3–4. Google Scholar
(2009) The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9–42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K.
(1998) Ten commandments for motivating language learners: Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 2, 203–229. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M.
2014). Motivation and vision for language learners and teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E.
(2011) Teaching and researching motivation, 2nd edn. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Duijnhouwer, H., Prins, F.J., & Stokking, K.M.
(2010) Progress feedback effects on students’ writing mastery goal, self-efficacy beliefs, and performance. Educational Research and Evaluation, 16, 53–74. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dunkel, C.S., & Anthis, K.S.
(2001) The role of possible selves in identity formation: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 765–776. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R., Sheen, Y., Murakami, M., & Takashima, H.
(2008) The effects of focused and unfocused written corrective feedback in an English as a foreign language context. System, 36, 353–371. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Erez, M.
(1977) Feedback: A necessary condition for the goal setting-performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 624–627. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, C.D.
(1978) The effects of personal control, competence, and extrinsic reward systems on intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 21, 273–288. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R.C.
(1985) Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: E. Arnold.Google Scholar
Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E.
(1972) Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Gickling, E.E.
(1984) Operationalizing academic learning time for low achieving and handicapped mainstreamed students. In Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association. Jackson Hole, WY.Google Scholar
Hadfield, J., & Dörnyei, Z.
(2013) Motivating learning. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Harter, S.
(1974) Pleasure derived by children from cognitive challenge and mastery. Child Development, 45, 661–669. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hattie, J.A.
(2009) Visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
(2012) Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hattie, J.A., & Timperley, H.
(2007) The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81–112. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hellekjaer, G.O.
(2010) Language matters: assessing lecture comprehension in Norwegian English-medium higher education. In C. Dalton-Puffer, T. Nikula & U. Smit (Eds.), Language use and language learning in CLIL classrooms (pp. 233–258). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, E.T.
(1987) Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hirsh, D., & Nation, P.
(1992) What vocabulary size is needed to read unsimplified texts for pleasure? Reading in a Foreign Language, 8, 698–696.
Hunt, J.M.
(1966) The epigenesis of intrinsic motivation and early cognitive learning. In R.N. Haber (Ed.), Current research in motivation. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
(1975) Implications of sequestional order and hierarchy in early psychological development. In B.Z. Friedlander, G.M. Sterritt & G.E. Kirk (Eds.), Exceptional infant(Vol. 3). New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Hyland, K., & Hyland, F.
(2006) Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39, 83–101. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, R.B., Grabe, W., Swain, M., & Tucker, G.R.
(2002) The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kluger, A.N., & DeNisi, A.
(1996) The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284. Crossref
Koestner, R., Ryan, R.M., Bernieri, F., & Holt, K.
(1984) Setting limits on children’s behavior: the differential effects of controlling vs. informational styles on intrinsic motivation and creativity. Journal of Personality, 52, 233–248. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J.
(2012) The role of individual differences in L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21, 390–403. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lantolf, J., & Pavlenko, A.
(2001) (S)econd (L)anguage (A)ctivity theory: Understanding second language learners as people. In M. Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning (pp. 172–182). London: Longman.Google Scholar
Latham, G.P., & Locke, E.A.
(2006) Enhancing the benefits and overcoming the pitfalls of goal setting. Organizational Dynamics, 35, 332–340. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2007) New developments in and directions for goal-setting research. European Psychologist, 12, 290–300. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lee, I.
(2008) Student reactions to teacher feedback in two Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 144–164. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E.A.
(1996) Motivation through conscious goal-setting. Applied & Preventive Psychology, 5, 117–124. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P.
(1990) A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
(2002) Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Magid, M., & Chan, L.
(2011) Motivating English learners by helping them visualise their Ideal L2 Self: lessons from two motivational programmes. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1–13.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P.
(1986) Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Martin, A.J.
(2006) Personal bests (PBs): a proposed multidimensional model and empirical analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 803–825. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Matsui, T., Matsui, K., & Ohnishi, R.
(1990) Mechanisms underlying math self-efficacy learning of college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 225–238. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
MLA Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign Languages. (
2007) Foreign languages and higher education: new structures for a changed world. New York: Modern Language Association of America. Available at <http://​www​.mla​.org​/flreport> (Last retrieved on 30 January 2014).Google Scholar
Munroe-Chandler, K., Hall, C., & G., F
(2008) Playing with confidence: The relationship between imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy in youth soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 1539–1546. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Noels, K.A.
(2001) New orientations in language learning motivation: towards a model of intrinsic, extrinsic and integrative orientations and motivation. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 43–68). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i.Google Scholar
Pajares, F., & Johnson, M.J.
(1996) Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of entering high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 33, 163–175. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Reeve, J., & Jang, H.
(2006) What teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during a learning activity. Journal of educational psychology, 98, 209–218. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J.
(2004) Enhancing students’ engagement by increasing teachers’ autonomy support. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 147–169. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, C.
(1951) Client-centred therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.Google Scholar
Rogers, C., & Dymond, R.
(1954) Psychotherapy and personality change. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, R.M.
(1982) Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450–461. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schunk, D.H.
(1991) Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26, 207–231. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2003) Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 159–172. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schunk, D.H., & Swartz, C.
(1993) Goals and progress feedback: effects on self-efficacy and writing achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 337–354. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Shapira, Z.
(1976) Expectancy determinants of intrinsically motivated behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 1235–1244. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sheen, Y.
(2007) The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 255–283.Google Scholar
(2011) Corrective feedback, individual differences and second language learning. New York, NY: Springer. Google Scholar
Sheen, Y., Wright, D., & Moldawa, A.
(2009) Differential effects of focused and unfocused written correction on the accurate use of grammatical forms by adult ESL learners. System, 37, 556–569. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Shohamy, E.
(2013) A critical perspective on the use of English as a medium of instruction at universities. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster & J.M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Swain, M.
(2000) The output hypothesis and beyond: mediating acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In J.P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 97–114). Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar
Taylor, F., Busse, V., Gagova, L., Marsden, E., & Roosken, B.
(2012) Identity in foreign language learning and teaching: Why listening to our students’ and teachers’ vocies really matters. In British Council ELT Research Papers. Retrieved April 04, 2013 at <http://​www​.teachingenglish​.org​.uk​/publications​/identity​-foreign​-language​-learning​-teaching​-why​-listening​- our​-students%E2%80%99​-teachers%E2%80%99>
Tremblay, P.F., & Gardner, R.C.
(1995) Expanding the motivational construct in language learning. Modern Language Journal, 79, 505–520. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Waterman, A.S.
(1982) Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18, 341–358. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Wesch, N.N., Milne, M.I., Burke, S.M., & Hall, C.R.
(2006) Self-efficacy and imagery use in older adult exercisers. European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 197–203. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Williams, M., & Burden, R.L.
(1997) Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 1 other publications

Lialikhova, Dina
2018. Triggers and constraints of lower secondary students’ willingness to communicate orally in English in a CLIL setting in the Norwegian context. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 6:1 ► pp. 27 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 27 february 2021. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.