Chapter 1.The challenge of dynamic variation in language processing
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1.1Introduction
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1.2Why a language processing approach to second language
variation?
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1.3PT’s dynamic variational dimension: The variational options
hypothesis
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1.3.1Developmental problems
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1.3.2Developmental trailers and scouts
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1.3.3Accuracy differences: Variational options
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1.3.4Learner orientation
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1.4Research gap
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1.5Aim of the book
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1.6PT’s dynamic developmental dimension: The fixed trajectory
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1.6.1Levelt’s model and processing procedures
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1.6.2LFG and feature unification
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1.6.3L2 English morphological stages
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1.6.4L2 English syntactic stages
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1.7A snapshot of PT’s dynamic methodologies
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1.8The significance of this book for debate on L2 variation
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1.8.1Variation is inherent, systematic and change-making
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1.8.2Systematic variation is related to change
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1.8.3Unsystematic variation is transformative
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1.9Defining L2 variation: variation and difference
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1.10Outline of the book
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Chapter 2.Contemporary lenses on variation in SLA
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2.1Introduction
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2.2Sociolinguistics and variationism
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2.2.1Defining learner versus target language choices
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2.2.2Systematic (and free) variation
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2.2.3Variation due to contextual variables
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2.2.4Conclusion
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2.3Usage based linguistics
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2.3.1Learner variation as the focus
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2.3.2Regularities in variation
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2.3.3Variation due to socio-cognitive factors
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2.3.4Conclusion
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2.4Dynamic Systems Theory and Complexity Theory
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2.4.1Defining variability versus variation
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2.4.2Free variation as the driver of change
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2.4.3Variation due to multiple socio-cognitive factors
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2.4.4Conclusion
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2.5Discussion and conclusion
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Chapter 3.Origins of L2 variation as a dynamic linguistic system
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3.1Introduction
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3.2The dynamics of the Multidimensional Model
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3.2.1Overview
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3.2.2The dynamics of psycholinguistic development
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3.2.3The dynamics of psycholinguistic variation
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3.2.4Conclusion
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3.3The dynamics of the Predictive Framework
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3.3.1Psycholinguistic development
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3.3.2Psycholinguistic variation
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3.4Conclusion
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Chapter 4.Dynamic variation as a dimension of processability
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4.1Introduction
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4.2The dynamics of the variational options hypothesis
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4.2.1Developmental problems
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4.2.2Developmental trailers and scouts
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4.2.3Variational options
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4.2.4Learner orientation: Simplifying (Type A), standardizing (Type
B)
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4.2.5Empirical support
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4.2.6Recapping the hypothesis
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4.2.7Variation in PT’s developmental features
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4.3The dynamics of the developmental style hypothesis
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4.3.1Lexical and grammatical morphemes
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4.3.2Previous studies of developmental style: A critical
self-review
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4.3.3Timing of PT’s developmental features
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4.3.4Timing of Stage 3 syntax and related Stage 4 morphosyntax
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4.3.5Timing of verb and noun morphology
95
4.4The dynamics of developmental change
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4.4.1Variation, change, and fossilization
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4.4.2Variation, emergence, and change
102
4.5Conclusion
104
Chapter 5.A methodology for studying dynamic variation
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5.1Introduction
107
5.2A context of L2 acquisition
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5.3Participants as variable L2 processers
180
5.4Spoken, task-based communication over time
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5.4.1Longitudinal data
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5.4.2Task-based data
112
5.4.3Spoken data
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5.5Measuring dynamic variation in development
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5.5.1Measuring developmental stages
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5.5.2Measuring trailers, scouts, and variational options
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5.5.3Measuring developmental style
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5.5.4Measuring free variation
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5.6Conclusion
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Chapter 6.Dynamic variation in simplifying developmental problems
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6.1Introduction
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6.2Syntactic results: From simplifying to standardizing
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6.2.1Philomena: Simplifying scout and omission
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6.2.2Ellen: Simplifying scout and omission
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6.2.3Mary: Simplifying scout and omission
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6.2.4Andre: Simplifying with intra-learner variation
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6.2.5Samia: Simplifying scout and omission
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6.2.6Yan: Simplifying (delayed) scout and omission
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6.2.7Amir: Standardizing trailer and avoidance
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6.2.8Daniel: Standardizing trailer and avoidance?
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6.2.9Summary
148
6.3Morphological results: From simplifying to standardizing
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6.3.1Philomena: Simplifying scout and violation
149
6.3.2Mary: Simplifying scout and violation
152
6.3.3Daniel: Simplifying scout and violation
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6.3.4Ellen: Simplifying scout and violation
155
6.3.5Yan: Simplifying but sensitivity to the context
157
6.3.6Andre: Simplifying scout and balanced options
159
6.3.7Amir: Simplifying scout and avoidance
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6.3.8Samia: Standardizing trailer and balanced options?
163
6.4Overall summary
164
6.5Discussion and conclusion
165
Chapter 7.Dynamic variation in developmental style
169
7.1Introduction
169
7.2Overview of the learners’ style
170
7.3Timing of information questions
171
7.3.1Philomena: Reliance on Stage 3 syntax
172
7.3.2Ellen: Reliance on Stage 3 syntax
176
7.3.3Mary: Reliance on Stage 3 syntax
179
7.3.4Samia style: Reliance on Stage 3 syntax
181
7.3.5Andre: Reliance on Stage 3 syntax, with elaboration
183
7.3.6Yan: Reliance on canonical order, no Stage 4 co-timing
185
7.3.7Amir: Stage 4 morphosyntax, formulae
186
7.3.8Daniel: Reliance on canonical order, Stage 4
morphosyntax,
187
7.3.9Summary
190
7.4Timing of noun and verb morphology
190
7.4.1Ellen: Dependence on words
192
7.4.2Mary: Morphological lag
195
7.4.3Philomena: Dependence on words
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7.4.4Yan: Morphological lag
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7.4.5Amir’s style: Morphological lag
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7.4.6Andre: Morphological lag
204
7.4.7Samia: Co-timing of morphology and syntax
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7.4.8Daniel: Co-timing of morphology and syntax
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7.4.9Summary
208
7.5From syntax-first to morphology and syntax
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7.5.1Ellen: Syntax-first (Stages 2 to 4)
210
7.5.2Yan: Syntax-first (Stages 2 to 4)
211
7.5.3Mary: Syntax-first (Stages 3 to 4)
212
7.5.4Philomena: Syntax-first (Stages 3 to 4)
212
7.5.5Andre: Syntax-first (Stages 3 to 4)
212
7.5.6Amir: Syntax-first (Stage 4)
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7.5.7Samia: Mixed morphosyntactic (Stages 3 to 4)
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7.5.8Daniel: Mixed morphosyntactic (Stages 2 to 4)
214
7.6Discussion and conclusion
215
Chapter 8.Processability and developmental change
219
8.1Introduction
219
8.2Ellen: No free variation
221
8.3Philomena: Emergence as driver
226
8.4Yan: Emergence as driver
230
8.5Daniel: Free variation?
233
8.6Overall results
236
8.7Discussion and conclusion
238
Chapter 9.The contribution of dynamic variation to SLA
241
9.1Introduction
241
9.2Dynamic variation in L2 processing
242
9.2.1Variational options results
242
9.2.2Developmental style results
243
9.2.3Implications of variational options and developmental
style
244
9.2.4Developmental change results
246
9.2.5Implications of developmental change
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