Cover not available
Part of
Language Change in the 20th Century: Exploring micro-diachronic evolutions in Romance languages
Edited by Salvador Pons Bordería and Shima Salameh Jiménez
[Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 340] 2024
► pp. 17–62

Chapter 1
Linguistic change in the 20th century

Colloquialization processes through football broadcastings in Peninsular Spanish

| Complutense University of Madrid

This paper analyses the colloquialization of football-match broadcastings in Peninsular Spanish throughout the 20th century, in line with other recent works dealing with the colloquialization of mass-media. To do so, it accounts for (a) linguistic features, (b) register variation, and (c) external factors related to colloquialization. The analysis is based on a self-compiled database of audio-visual recordings aired between 1968 and the 2000s in Tv and radio. According to results, colloquialization in Peninsular Spanish football broadcasts was developed during three main periods: 1960s–1980s, 1980s–1990s, and 1990s up to now. Specifically, colloquialization can be measured by speech speed, vocabulary and the use of address terms, among other features. These features, in turn, are associated with register variation properties, such as changes in the proximity shared by speakers or the presence of day-to-day topics in broadcastings. Last, some external factors, such as the influence of historical events or the role of announcers also seem to affect the results analysed.

Keywords: language change, colloquialization, 20th century, sports commentary, football match broadcast, Peninsular Spanish, mass-media, speech speed, vocabulary, address terms
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Language and diaphasic variation
    • 2.1Diaphasic variation: Register and genre
    • 2.2The Val.Es.Co. proposal for diaphasic variation
  • 3.Colloquialization in PS football-match broadcasting
    • 3.1Colloquialization and language change
    • 3.2Football-match broadcastings today: Main features
      • 3.2.1Linguistic features of football-match broadcastings in PS
      • 3.2.2Technical features of football-match broadcastings in Spain
  • 4.Data and methods
    • 4.1A corpus of Football-broadcastings in Peninsular Spanish
    • 4.2Research questions
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1Prosody: Speech speed
    • 5.2Lexical analysis
    • 5.3Pragmatics: Address terms
  • 6.Discussion
    • 6.1Some general ideas: Football-match broadcasting as a colloquialized genre
    • 6.2External factors involved in colloquialization
    • 6.3The role of the announcer
    • 6.4A chronology for the data
  • 7.Conclusions
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 5 January 2024
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.340.01sal
References
Balzer-Siber, Marco
2015 Functional and Stylistic Features of Sports Announcer Talk: A Discourse Analysis of the Register of Major League Soccer Television Broadcasts. UMI Dissertation Publishing.Google Scholar
Barr, Charles
1975 “Comparing styles: England vs West Germany.” In Buscombe (Ed.): Football on Television, 47–53. Londres: British Film Institute.Google Scholar
Benítez, Anto, Ángel López-López and Manuel Sánchez-Cid
2015 “Comparando transmisiones deportivas: indicadores de estilo en la puesta en pantalla del fútbol en Arabia Saudí, Inglaterra y España. Fonseca, Journal of Communication, 10, 79–117.Google Scholar
Bertomeu, Pau
2022 Peticiones en alemán y español. Un estudio contrastivo a partir de Gran Hermano. Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Biber, Douglas
2012 “Register as a predictor of linguistic variation.” Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 8, 1, 9–37. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Biber, Douglas & Edward Finegan
1989 Styles of stance in English: Lexical and grammatical marking of evidentiality and affect. Text- Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse, 9, 1, 93–124. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1994 (Eds.). Sociolinguistic perspectives on register. New York. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Biber, Douglas & Bethany Gray
2013 “Being Specific about Historical Change: The Influence of Sub-Register.” Journal of English Linguistics, 41-2, 104–134. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blas Arroyo, José Luis
2022 “Patterns of individual variation and change in Golden Age Spanish. An analysis of three linguistic variables in a corpus of private correspondence.” Folia Lingüística, 43, 1, 56, 289–328. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brandimonte, Giovanni
2021 “Los diálogos de las ficciones fílmicas y televisivas como corpus lingüísticos para fines fraseodidácticos.” Cuadernos AISPI, 18, 125–148.Google Scholar
Briz, Antonio
y Val.Es.Co. Group 1995 La conversación coloquial. Materiales para su estudio. Universidad de Valencia.Google Scholar
2010 “Lo coloquial y lo formal, el eje de la variedad lingüística.” In R. Castañer & V. Lagüens (Eds.), De moneda nunca usada. Estudios dedicados a José María Enguita (pp. 125–133). Institución Fernando El Católico.Google Scholar
2013 “Variación pragmática y coloquialización estratégica. El caso de algunos géneros televisivos (la tertulia).” In C. Fuentes (Ed.), (Des)cortesía para el espectáculo: estudios de pragmática variacionista (pp. 89–125). Arco Libros.Google Scholar
& Val.Es.Co. Group 2014 “Las unidades del discurso oral. La propuesta Val.Es.Co. de segmentación de la conversación (coloquial.” ELIES, Estudios de Lingüística del Español, 35, 11–71.Google Scholar
Bruns, H. & Kranich, S.
2021 “Terms of Address: A Contrastive Investigation of Ongoing Changes in British, American and Indian English and in German.” Contrastive Pragmatics, 3, 112–143. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Calvi, Maria Vittoria
2019 “Oralización y polifonía en la lengua del turismo 2.0.: el caso de las plataformas de reserva hotelera.” Normas, 9, 1–16. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cano Aguilar, Rafael
2002 “El español coloquial: enfoques y perspectivas de análisis.” In Actas del V Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Lengua Española. ISBN 84-249-2315-4 (pp. 279–284).Google Scholar
Coseriu, Eugenio
(1978), Gramática, semántica, universales. Madrid: Gredos.Google Scholar
Castillo, Mónica & Elena Díez del Corral
2019 Reescribiendo la historia de la lengua española a partir de la edición de documentos. Peter Lang. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Coseriu, Eugenio
1981 “Los conceptos de ‘dialecto’, ‘nivel’ y ‘estilo de lengua’ y el sentido propio de la dialectología.” Lingüística Española Actual, 3, 1, 1–32.Google Scholar
Chafe, Wallace
1982 Integration and involvement in speaking, writing, and oral literature. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Spoken and written language: exploring orality and literacy (pp. 35–53). Advances in Discourse Processes. Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Chandler, Joan M.
1988 Television and National Sport: The United States and Britain. University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Cook, Manuela
2013 “Portuguese Pronouns and Other Forms of Address, from the Past into the Future – Structural, Semantic and Pragmatic Reflections.” Ellipsis, 11, 267–290. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Contreras, Josefa
2013 “La velocidad de habla como elemento diferenciador entre el registro formal e informal del habla.” Lengua y habla, 17, 237–243.Google Scholar
Coseriu, Eugenio
1978 Gramática, semántica, universales: estudios de lingüística funcional. Editorial Gredos.Google Scholar
Cuadros, M.ª Teresa
2011 La radio española en la Transición (1978–1981). Trabajo fin de Máster en Guion, narrativa y creación audiovisual. Universidad de Sevilla.Google Scholar
Cuenca, Maria Josep
2013 “Uso del vocativo en la entrevista política: género discursivo y (des)cortesía.” Discurso & Sociedad, 7, 3, 522–552.Google Scholar
Del Rey, Santiago
2019 “Variantes de la oralidad elaborada en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX: dos traducciones coetáneas de Los cautivos de Plauto.” Oralia, 22, 2, 283–326.Google Scholar
Enghels, Renata, Fien De Latte, Linde Roels
2020 “El Corpus Oral de Madrid (CORMA): materiales para el estudio (socio)lingüístico del español coloquial actual.” Zeitschrift für Katalanistik, 33, 45–76. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Estellés Arguedas, Maria
2020 “The Evolution of Parliamentary Debates in Light of the Evolution of Evidentials: Al Parecer and Por lo Visto in 40 Years of Parliamentary Proceedings from Spain.” Corpus Pragmatics, 4, 59–82. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fairclough, Norman
1992 Discourse and social change. Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
1995 Critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. Longman.Google Scholar
2003 Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London and New York: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Farrelly, M. & Elena Seoane
2012 Democratization. In T. Nevalainen, E.Cl. Traugott (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of English (pp. 392–401). Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, Charles A.
1983 “Sports Announcer Talk: Syntactic Aspects of Register Variation.” Language in Society, 12, 2, 153–172. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
1985 Genre and register: One Path to Discourse Analysis. In T. Huebner (Ed.), Sociolinguistic perspectives. Papers on Language in Society, 1959–1994. Charles A. Ferguson (pp. 167–176). Oxford Studies in Sociolinguistics.Google Scholar
Formentelli, Maicol
2009 Address Strategies in a British Academic Setting. Pragmatics, 19, 179–196.Google Scholar
García-Cardona, Juan & Irene Checa
2022 “Coloquialidad en el aula y percepción de estilo de enseñanza del docente universitario: varios estudios de caso.” Oralia, 25, 1, 35–56. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
García-del-Barrio, Pedro & Francesc Pujol
2007 “El papel del fútbol en la sociedad actual. Fútbol: ocio y negocio. Revista Empresa y Humanismo, XI, I, 89–108.Google Scholar
Gerhalter, Katharina
2020 “Elaboración, variación y selección en el paradigma de los adverbios de exactitud. El caso de al justo y al cabal.” Studia Linguistica Romanica, 3, 28–67.Google Scholar
Ghadessy, Mohsen
. (Ed.) 1988 Registers of Written English: situational factors and linguistics features. London: Pinter.Google Scholar
Gómez Torrego, Leonardo
2010 Aspectos gramaticales del lenguaje del fútbol. Marco ELE, 11, 132–149.Google Scholar
Halliday, Michael A.K.
(1978) Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Halliday, Michael A. E.
1987 Language as a Social Semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. Edward ArnoldGoogle Scholar
Hernández Alonso, Nelson
2012 Tendencias en el lenguaje deportivo actual. Madrid: Visión Libros.Google Scholar
Herrero Gutiérrez, Francisco Javier & David Rodríguez Ramos
2009 “La locución de los narradores deportivos radiofónicos en España.” Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, 64, 968–987. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hickey, R.
2020 The interplay of internal and external factors in varieties of English. In M. Kytö & E. Smitterberg (Eds.), Late Modern English: Novel Encounters. Studies in Language Companion Series, 214 (pp. 43–64). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hiltunen, Turo, Jenni Räikkönen & Jukka Tyrkkö
2020 “Investigating colloquialization in the British parliamentary record in the late 19th and early 20th century.” Language Sciences, 79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hua-Kuo, Saihua
2007 “Social change and discursive change: analyzing conversationalization of media discourse in Taiwan.” Discourse Studies, 9, 6, 743–765. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Humpolík, Radek
2014 Language of Football Commentators: An Analysis of Live English Football Commentary and its types. Bachelor Diploma Thesis. Masaryk University.Google Scholar
Iosef, Mihail
2013 Signs of Colloquialization. Three corpus-based Case studies. University of Oslo. Master Thesis.Google Scholar
Irvine, Judith T.
1978 Formality and informality in Speech events. Working papers in Sociolinguistics, 52, pp. 1-24.Google Scholar
Ito, Rita & Sali Tagliamonte
2003 Well weird, right dodgy, very strange, really cool: Layering and recycling in English intensifiers. Language in Society 32, 257–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jones, Marie & Edith Esch
2002 The Interplay of Internal, External and Extra-Linguistic Factors. De Gruyter. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jucker, Andreas
2008 Historical Pragmatics. Pragmatic developments in the history of English. John Benjamins Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Juknevičienė, Rita & Paulius Viluckas
2019 “Lexical Features of football reports: computer- vs human-mediated language.” In M. Calies & M. Levin (Eds.), Corpus Approaches to the Language of Sports. Texts, Media, Modalities (pp. 63–82). London: Bloomsbury. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kabatek, Johannes
2018 Lingüística coseriana, lingüística histórica, tradiciones discursivas. Ed. by C. Bleorţu & D. P. Gerards, Madrid/ Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana/Vervuert. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Knoll, Johannes, Holger Schramm & Christiana Schallhorn
2014 “Mood Effects of Televised Sports Events: The Impact of FIFA World Cups on Viewers’ Mood and Judgments.” Communication & Sport, 2, 3, 242–260. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Koch, Peter & Wulf Österreicher
1985 Sprache der Nähe – Sprache der Distanz. Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Spannungsfeld von Sprachstheorie und Sprachsgeschichte. Romanistisches Jahrbuch 36, 15–43. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Koch, Peter & W. Österreicher
1990 Gesprochene Sprache in der Romania: Französisch, ltalienisch, Spanisch. Max Niemeyer. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kortmann, Bernd
2020 English Linguistics. Essentials. J.B. Metzler.Google Scholar
Krone, Maike
2005 The language of football: A contrastive study of syntactic and semantic specifics in verb usage in English and German match commentaries. Stuttgart: Verlag HaunschildGoogle Scholar
Kroon, Åsa & Göran Eriksson
2019 The Impact of the Digital Transformation on Sports Journalism Talk Online, Journalism Practice, 13:7, 834-852, DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Labov, William
1990 “The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic change.” Language variation and Change, 2, 2, 205–254. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Laliberté, Catherine
2022 “A Diachronic Study of Modals and Semi-modals in Indian English Newspapers.” Jounal of English Linguistics, 50, 2, 142–168. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
LaLiga
2019 Reglamento para la retransmisión deportiva. Vigente a partir del inicio de la competición oficial de la temporada 2018/2019. LaLiga Santander.
2022 Portal de La Liga Santander [URL]
Laseca García, Jaime
2017 La importancia de los ingresos de televisión en el modelo de negocio de los clubes de fútbol. Universidad de Valladolid, España.Google Scholar
Lázaro Carreter, Fernando
1987 “Los medios de comunicación y la lengua española.” Comisión Permanente de la Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, Primera Reunión de Academias de la Lengua Española sobre El Lenguaje y los medios de comunicación. Madrid, Real Academia Española, 29–43.Google Scholar
Lee, David. Y. W.
2001 “Genres, registers, text types, domains and styles: Clarifying the concepts and navigating a path through the BNC jungle.” Language Learning & Technology 5, 3, 37–72.Google Scholar
Lewandowski, Marcin
2012 “The language of online sports commentary in comparative perspective.” Lingua Posnaniensis, 54, 1, 65–76. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Llopis-Cardona, Ana
2022 “El cambio de entorno y evocación en las tradiciones discursivas: propuesta y aplicación al caso de en definitiva.” ELUA: Estudios de Lingüística Universidad de Alicante, 37, 185–220. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Llopis-Cardona, Ana & Salvador Pons Bordería
2020 “La gramaticalización de macho y tío/a como ciclo semántico-pragmático.” Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a la Comunicación, 82, 151–164. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
López Serena, Araceli
2014 “De la oralidad fingida a la oralidad simuladora de realidad. Reflexiones en torno a la coloquialización del discurso como estrategia mediática.” Español actual: revista de español vivo, 102, 37–75.Google Scholar
Loureiro-Porto, Lucía & Turo Hiltunen
2020 Democratization and Gender-neutrality in English(es). Journal of English Linguistics, 48(3), 215–232. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mair, Christian
2004 Corpus linguistics and grammaticalization theory. Statistics, frequencies and beyond. In H. Lindquist & C. Mair (Eds.), Corpus Approaches to Grammaticalization in English (pp. 121–50). John Benjamins Publishing Company. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Mair, Christian & Geoffrey Leech
2006 “Current changes in English Syntax.” In B. Aarts & A. McMahon (Eds.), The Handbook of English Linguistics (pp. 318–342). Blackwell Publishing. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Malvar, Luis
2005 radio deportiva en España (1927-2004). Pearson Educación.Google Scholar
Martínez Costa, María del Pilar & Susana Herrera
2014 “La tertulia radiofónica como un tipo de conversación coloquial.” Doxa Comunicación, 5, 189–211.Google Scholar
Meier-Vieracker, Simon
2021 “The evolution of football live text commentaries. A corpus linguistic case study on genre change.” AILA Review, 34, 2, 274–299. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Naveed, Hamid & Hazrat Umar
2021 “A Study of Stylistic Features of Cricket Commentary: A Discourse Analysis.” NUST Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 7, 1, 145–165. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nerbonne, John
2009 “Data-Driven Dialectology.” Language and Linguistics Compass, 3, 1, 175–198. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nevalainen, Tertu & Elizabeth Cl. Traugott
(Eds.) 2012 The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ong, Walter J.
1982 Oralidad y escritura. Tecnologías de la palabra. Fondo de cultura económica. México.Google Scholar
Pellegrino, François, Christophe Coupé & Egidio Marsico
2011 “A cross-language perspective on speech information rate.” Language, 87, 3, 539–558. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pons Bordería, Salvador
2014 “El siglo XX como diacronía: intuición y comprobación en el caso de ‘o sea’.” RILCE: Revista de Filología Hispánica, 30, 3, 985–1016. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
2016 “Evolución diacrónica de o sea.” Boletín de la Real Academia Española, 96, 313, 291–350.Google Scholar
2022 Creación y análisis de corpus orales: saberes prácticos y reflexiones teóricas. Peter Lang. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pons Bordería, Salvador, Adrià Pardo-Llibrer & Amparo Alemany
2023 La marcación discursiva en español: descripción y análisis conjunto desde el DPDE. Universidad de Sevilla.Google Scholar
Pons Bordería, Salvador
2024 How are linguistic changes in the 20th century to be studied? Sp. VOC-tío or merging sociolinguistic and philological explanations. In Pons Bordería, Salvador and Shima Salameh Jiménez (Eds.), Language change in the 20th century: exploring micro-diachronic evolutions in Romance Languages. Pragmatics and Beyond. John Benjamins Publishing Company. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Popov, Aleksandar
2019 Live Sports Commentating: A Comparative Study of Cricket, Football, Horse Racing and Tennis Commentaries. University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts.Google Scholar
Porroche, Margarita
2009 “Oralidad y escritura en las columnas de opinión de la prensa zaragozana actual.” Archivo de Filología Aragonesa, 68, 231–252.Google Scholar
Quintero, Sara & José de Jesús Cárdenas
2020 “Una aproximación al análisis comparativo de estructuras en una muestra narrativa de tres eventos deportivos.” Lingüística y literatura, 41, 77, 236–259.Google Scholar
Quintero Ramírez, Sara
2022 Caracterización de sintagmas nominales en crónicas televisivas de fútbol. Revista de Investigación Lingüística, 25, pp. 215-232.Google Scholar
Reber, Elizabeth
2021 “On the variation of fragmental constructions in British English and American English post-match interviews.” Sociolinguistica, 35, 1, 217–241. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reigosa, Carlos, Alberto Gómez, Pedro García, Claudio García Turza & Miguel Ángel Muro
(coords.) 1994 El idioma español en el deporte. Madrid: Gobierno de La Rioja (Consejería de Cultura, Deportes y Juventud) y Agencia EFE.Google Scholar
Rodero, Emma
2005 Producción radiofónica. Madrid: Cátedra.Google Scholar
2012 “A comparative analysis of speech rate and perception in radio bulletins.” Text & Talk, 32(3), 391–411. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Román, Aránzazu
2015 “La previa deportiva como género periodístico. Una mirada desde el ámbito profesional.” Fonseca, Journal of Communication, 10, 203–219.Google Scholar
Rueda, José Carlos
2005 “La televisión en España: expansión y consumo social, 1963–1969.” Anàlisi, 32, 45–71.Google Scholar
Rühlemann, Cristoph, Martin Hilpert
2017 Colloquialization in journalistic writing: the case of inserts with a focus on well. Journal of Historical Pragmatics, 18, 1, 104–135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Salameh, Shima
in preparation). “Football broadcastings in Peninsular Spanish: towards a systematic description since the 00s. up to now.”
in preparation). “Measuring language change through prosody: colloquialization processes in Peninsular Spanish football match broadcastings.”
in preparation). “Colloquialization processes in football match broadcastings from Peninsular Spanish: changes in vocabulary until 1980.”
in preparation). “The role of announcers in the colloquialization of football match broadcastings: a case-study from Peninsular Spanish Tv and radio.”
Sampson, John
1997 “ ‘Genre’, ‘style’ and ‘register’. Sources of confusion?” Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire, 75(3), 699–708. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Cid, Manuel, Alberto García-García, A. & Elena Cuevas-Molano
2020 “Retransmisión de partidos de fútbol de Canal+ en España: 1990–2016. La innovación tecnológica como referente.” Estudios sobre el Mensaje Periodístico 26, 2, 827–836. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sanvicente, Félix
2017 “Hablado/Parlato: aspectos lingüísticos y discursivos de la comunicación oral.” In F. Sanvicente, G. Bazzocchi & P. Capanaga (Eds.), Oraliter, Formas de la comunicación presencial y a distancia (pp. 19–74), Bolonia University Press.Google Scholar
Schützler, Ole
2020 “Frequency changes and stylistic levelling of though in diachronic and synchronic varieties of English – linguistic democratisation?.” Language Sciences, 79, 1–16. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sehlbach, Carolin; Teunissen, Pim, Driessen, Erik; Mitchell, Sharon; Rohde, Gernot; Smeenk, Frank; and Marjan Govaerts
2020 Learning in Workplace: Use of Informal feedback cues in doctor-patient communication. Med. Education, 54, 9, pp. 811-820.Google Scholar
Seoane, Elena & Lucía Loureiro-Porto
2022 A diachronic corpus-pragmatic approach to the intersection of democratization, colloquialization and popularization: The evolution of newspaper editorials in 1860–1970. In T. Hiltunen, T. Vartiainen & J. Räikkönen, Special Issue Corpus-pragmatic studies of democratization in public discourses, Journal of Historical Pragmatics.Google Scholar
Smith, Nicolas & Cathleen Waters
2019 “Variation and change in a specialized register. A comparison of random and sociolinguistic sampling outcomes in Desert Island Discs.” International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 24, 2, 169–201. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Smith, Nicolas
2020 “Conversationalization and democratization in a radio chat show: a grammar-led investigation.” Language Sciences, 79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stefanowitsch, Anatol & Stephan Gries
2008 “Channel and constructional meaning: A collostructional case study.” In G. Kristiansen & R. Dirven (Eds.), Cognitive Sociolinguistics (pp. 129–152). DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tottie, Gunnel
2017 “From pause to word: uh, um and er in written American English.” English Language and Linguistics, 23, 1, 105–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Truan, Naomi
2022 “(When) Can I say Du to You? The metapragmatics of forms of address on German-Speaking Twitter.” Journal of Pragmatics, 191, 227–239. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Traugott, Elizabeth Cl. & Terttu Nevalainen
2012 The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford Academic.Google Scholar