The focus of the paper is the appropriateness of pragmatic elicitation techniques for generating talk to be used in analyses of talk and social structure. In the best pragmatic elicitation techniques (i) data are generated in situations in which researchers can manipulate variables in the testing of hypotheses, and (ii) speakers can talk freely and spontaneously without awareness that their talk is the object of study. This claim was tested in an examination of the hypothesis that more facework will occur in refusals to a High versus Low status requester. Requester status was manipulated in Oral and Written Discourse Completion, Role Play, and an Experimental elicitation technique. Support for the hypothesis was found only in the Role Play and Experimental conditions. Next, refusals generated in the above four elicitation conditions were compared to Naturally-occurring refusals. At the levels of the acts by which refusals are accomplished and the internal structure of the head act, Oral and Written DC produced anomalous and non-representative refusals. Role Play and the Experimental technique produced refusals that were very similar to Natural refusals, though Role Play refusals tended to be somewhat repetitive and long-winded. It is concluded that an Experimental technique is the preferred pragmatic elicitation technique.
(1984) Structures of social action: Studies in conversation analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. BoP
Bavelas, J.B
(1995) Quantitative versus qualitative? In W. Leeds-Hurwitz (ed.), Communication as social construction: Social approaches to the study of communication . New York: Guilford Press, pp. 49-62.
Beebe, L., & M.C. Cummings
(1985) Speech act performance: A function of the data collection procedures? Paper presented at TESOL Convention, New York.
Beebe, L., T. Takahashi, & R. Uliss-Weltz
(1990) Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In R. Scarcella, E. Andersen, S.D. Krashen& (eds.), On the development of communicative competence in a second language. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House, pp. 55-73.
Bem, D.J., & H.K. McConnell
(1970) Testing the self-perception explanation of dissonance phenomena: On the salience of premanipulation attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 141: 23-31.
Blum-Kulka, S., J. House, & G. Kasper
(1989) Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. BoP
Brouwer, D., M. Gerritsen, & D. de Haan
(1979) Speech differences between women and men: On the wrong track?Language in Society 81: 33-50. BoP
Brown, P., & S. Levinson
(1987) Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, R., & A. Gilman
(1960) The pronouns of power and solidarity. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in language. Cambridge: Technology Press.
Clancy, P.M
(1986) The acquisition of communicative style in Japanese. In B. SchieffelinE. Ochs& (eds.), Language socialization across cultures. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Drummond, K., & R. Hopper
(1993) Back-channels revisited: Acknowledgement tokens and speakership incipiency. Research on Language and Social Interaction 261: 157-177.
Duranti, A., & C. Goodwin
(1992) Rethinking context: Language as an interactive phenomenon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. BoP
(1967) Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. BoP
Garfinkel, H., & H. Sacks
(1970) On formal structures of practical action. In J.G. McKinneyE.A. Tiryakian& (eds.), Theoretical sociology: Perspectives and developments . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, pp. 338-366.
Garfinkel, H., & D.L. Wieder
(1992) Two incommensurable, asymmetrically alternate technologies of social analysis. In G. Watson & R.M. Seiler (eds.), Text in context: Contributions to ethnomethodology.Newbury Park: Sage, pp. 175-206.
Gilovich, T
(1990) Differential construal and the false consensus effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 591: 623-634.
Goffman, E
(1967) Interaction ritual: Essays on face to face behavior. Garden City: Doubleday. BoP
Goffman, E
(1983) The interaction order. American Sociological Review 481: 1-17.
Goodwin, C
(1979) The interactive construction of a sentence in natural conversation. In G. Psathas (ed.), Everyday language: Studies in ethnomethodology. New York: Irvington, pp. 97-121.
Goodwin, C
(1981) Conversational organization: Interaction between speakers and hearers. New York: Academic Press. BoP
Goodwin, C., & J. Heritage
(1990) Conversation analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology 191: 283-307.
Gumperz, J.J
(1972) Introduction. In J.J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., pp. 1-25.
Heritage, J
(1984) Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Heritage, J
(1999) Conversation analysis at century’s en: Practices of talk-in-interaction, their distributions, and their outcomes. Research on Language and Social Interaction 321: 69-76. BoP
Labov, W
(1966) The social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. BoP
Latane, B., & J.M. Darley
(1970) The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn't he help? New York: Appleton- Crofts.
Levinson, S.C
(1983) Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Liao, C., & Y. Lii-Shih
(1993) Refusal in Mandarin Chinese. Paper presented at the 4th International Pragmatics Conference, Kobe, Japan.
Miller, D.T., & C. McFarland
(1987) Pluralistic ignorance: When similarity is interpreted as dissimilarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 531: 298-305.
Muntigl, P., & W. Turnbull
(1998) Conversational structure and facework in arguing. Journal of Pragmatics 291: 225-256. BoP
Nisbett, R.E., & T.D. Wilson
(1977) Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review 841: 231-259.
Ochs, E
(1988) Culture and language development: Language acquisition and language socialization in a Samoan village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. BoP
Ochs, E
(1992) Indexing gender. In A. Duranti & C. Goodwin (eds), Rethinking context: Language as an interactive phenomenon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 336-358. BoP
Ochs, E., & B. Schieffelin
(1979) Developmental pragmatics. New York: Academic Press. BoP
Ochs, E., B. Schieffelin, & M. Platt
(1979) Propositions across utterances and speakers. In E. Ochs & B. Schieffelin (eds.), Developmental pragmatics. New York: Academic Press, pp. 251-268. BoP
Ohlstain, E
(1989) Apologies across languages. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, pp. 155-173. BoP
Ong, W.J
(1982) Orality and literacy. New York: Methuen.
Owen, M
(1983) Apologies and remedial interchanges: A study of language use in social interaction. New York: Mouton Publishers. BoP.
Potter, J
(1996) Representing reality : Discourse, rhetoric and social construction. London: Sage.
Potter, J., & M. Wetherell
(1987) Discourse and social psychology: Beyond attitudes and behavior. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. BoP
Prentice, D.A., & D.T. Miller
(1993) Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: Some consequences of misperceiving the social norm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 641: 243-256.
Psathas, G
(1995) Conversation analysis: The study of talk-in-interaction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. BoP
Resnick, L.B., J.M. Levine, & S.D. Teasley
(1991) Perspectives on socially shared cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Rintall, E.M., & C.J. Mitchell
(1989) Studies of requests and apologies: An inquiry into method. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, pp. 248-272.
Robinson, W.P
(1985) Social psychology and discourse. In T.A. van Dijk (ed.), Handbook of discourse analysis. Vol. 1: Disciplines of discourse.London: Academic Press, pp. 107-144.
Rose, K
(1992) Speech acts and questionnaires: The effect of hearer response. Journal of Pragmatics 171: 49-62. BoP
Rubin, J
(1983) How to tell when someone is saying "no" revisited. In: N. Wolfson & E. Judd (eds.), Sociolinguistics and language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, pp. 10-17.
Sacks, H
(1992) Lectures on conversation (Vol. 1 and 2). Oxford: Blackwell.
Sacks, H., & E.A. Schegloff
(1979) Two preferences in the organization of reference to persons in conversation and their interaction. In G. Psathas (ed.), Everyday language: Studies in ethnomethodology. New York: Irvington, pp. 15-21.
Schegloff, E.A
(1993) Reflections on quantification in studies of conversation. Research on Language and Social Interaction 261: 99-128. BoP
Schegloff, E.A
(1972) Sequencing in conversational openings. In J.J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, pp. 346-380.
Slugoski, B.R., & W. Turnbull
(1988) Cruel to be kind and kind to be cruel: Sarcasm, banter and social relations. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 71: 101-121. BoP
Storms, M.D., & R.E. Nisbett
(1970) Insomnia and the attribution process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 11: 319-328.
Sudnow, D
(1972) Studies in social interaction. New York: Free Press. BoP
Tracy, K
(1993) It's an interesting article!Research on Language and Social Interaction 261: 195-201. BoP
Turnbull, W
(1992) A conversation approach to explanation, with emphasis on politeness and accounting. In M.L. McLaughlin, M.J. Cody, & S.J. Read (eds.), Explaining oneself to others: Reason-giving in a social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 105-130.
Turnbull, W., & J.I.M. Carpendale
(1999) A social pragmatic model of talk: Implications for research on the development of children’s social understanding. Human Development 421: 328-355.
Turnbull, W., & J.I.M. Carpendale
in press) Talk and the development of social understanding. Early Education and Development (Special issue on language socialization during the pre-school years).
Turnbull, W., & K.L. Saxton
(1997) Modal expressions as facework in refusals to comply with requests: I think I should say 'no' right now. Journal of Pragmatics 271: 145-181.
Turnbull, W., & B.R. Slugoski
(1988) Conversational and linguistic processes in causal attribution. In D. Hilton (ed.), Contemporary science and natural explanation: Commonsense conceptions of causality.New York: New York University Press, pp. 69-93.
Ueda, K
(1974) Sixteen ways to avoid saying no in Japan. In J. Condon & M. Saito (eds.), Intercultural encounters with Japan. Tokyo: Simul Press, pp. 185-192.
van Dijk, T.A
(1997) Discourse studies: A multidisciplinary introduction: Vol 2. Discourse as social interaction. London: Sage.
Wilson, T.D., & Brekke
(1994) Mental contamination and mental correction: Unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations. Psychological Bulletin 1161: 117-142.
Wood, L.A., & R.O. Kroger
(1994) The analysis of facework in discourse: Review and proposal. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 131: 248-277.
Cited by
Cited by 40 other publications
Al-Gahtani, Saad & Carsten Roever
2018. Proficiency and preference organization in second language refusals. Journal of Pragmatics 129 ► pp. 140 ff.
Barron, Anne
2007. “Ah no honestly we're okay:” Learning to upgrade in a study abroad context. Intercultural Pragmatics 4:2
Barron, Anne & Klaus P. Schneider
2009. Variational pragmatics: Studying the impact of social factors on language use in interaction. Intercultural Pragmatics 6:4
Bataller Fuster, Rebeca
2013. Role-plays versus natural data: asking for a drink at a cafeteria in Peninsular Spanish. Íkala, Revista de Lenguaje y Cultura 18:2
Bella, Spyridoula
2009. Invitations and politeness in Greek: The age variable. Journal of Politeness Research. Language, Behaviour, Culture 5:2
Bella, Spyridoula
2011. Mitigation and politeness in Greek invitation refusals: Effects of length of residence in the target community and intensity of interaction on non-native speakers’ performance. Journal of Pragmatics 43:6 ► pp. 1718 ff.
Bella, Spyridoula
2014. Developing the ability to refuse: A cross-sectional study of Greek FL refusals. Journal of Pragmatics 61 ► pp. 35 ff.
Bella, Spyridoula
2022. Offers by Greek FL learners. Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA)► pp. 531 ff.
2006. Developing KFL Students’ Pragmatic Awareness of Korean Speech Acts: The Use of Discourse Completion Tasks. Language Awareness 15:4 ► pp. 244 ff.
Byon, Andrew Sangpil
2006. The role of linguistic indirectness and honorifics in achieving linguistic politeness in Korean requests. Journal of Politeness Research. Language, Behaviour, Culture 2:2
Byon, Andrew Sangpil
2015. Second Language Acquisition. In The Handbook of Korean Linguistics, ► pp. 389 ff.
2013. Strategies, modification and perspective in native speakers’ requests: A comparison of WDCT and naturally occurring requests. Journal of Pragmatics 53 ► pp. 21 ff.
2006. Semantics: Field Work Methods. In Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, ► pp. 180 ff.
Holmes, Janet
2012. Politeness in Intercultural Discourse and Communication. In The Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication, ► pp. 205 ff.
Kasanga, Luanga A & Joy-Christine Lwanga-Lumu
2007. Cross-cultural linguistic realization of politeness: A study of apologies in English and Setswana. Journal of Politeness Research. Language, Behaviour, Culture 3:1
Kasper, Gabriele & Kenneth R. Rose
2002. Epilogue. Language Learning 52:s1 ► pp. 305 ff.
Kirner-Ludwig, Monika
2022. Data collection methods applied in studies in the journalIntercultural Pragmatics(2004–2020): a scientometric survey and mixed corpus study. Intercultural Pragmatics 19:4 ► pp. 459 ff.
Lefringhausen, Katharina, Helen Spencer-Oatey & Carolin Debray
2019. Culture, Norms, and the Assessment of Communication Contexts: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 50:10 ► pp. 1098 ff.
Mohammad Hosseinpur, Rasoul, Reza Bagheri Nevisi & Abdolreza Lowni
2016. Az ígéret beszédaktusának vizsgálata a mai magyar nyelvhasználatban. Jelentés és Nyelvhasználat 3:1 ► pp. 63 ff.
O'Connell, Daniel C., Sabine Kowal & Edward J. Dill
2004. Dialogicality in TV news interviews. Journal of Pragmatics 36:2 ► pp. 185 ff.
Rebuschat, Patrick & Alison Mackey
2012. Prompted Production. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics,
Ren, Wei
2015. Sociopragmatic Variation in Mainland and Taiwan Chinese Refusals. In Researching Sociopragmatic Variability, ► pp. 72 ff.
Riddiford, Nicky & Janet Holmes
2015. Assisting the development of sociopragmatic skills: Negotiating refusals at work. System 48 ► pp. 129 ff.
RIDDIFORD, NICKY & ANGELA JOE
2010. Tracking the Development of Sociopragmatic Skills. TESOL Quarterly 44:1 ► pp. 195 ff.
Shardakova, Maria
2005. Intercultural pragmatics in the speech of American L2 learners of Russian: Apologies offered by Americans in Russian. Intercultural Pragmatics 2:4
Song, Sooho
2018. Second Language Acquisition Theories. In Second Language Acquisition as a Mode-Switching Process, ► pp. 9 ff.
Suszczyńska, Małgorzata
2005. Apology routine formulae in Hungarian. Acta Linguistica Hungarica 52:1 ► pp. 77 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 12 april 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.