Artificial grammar learning
An introduction to key issues and debates
We consider Artificial Grammar Learning (AGL), which is a versatile methodological tool for the study of learning. AGL is fairly unique amongst learning paradigms, in that it allows an instantiation of a wide variety of theories of learning, including rules, similarity, and associative learning theories. Also, performance in AGL tasks typically reflects both implicit and explicit learning processes. We review these putative influences on AGL performance and how they relate to general cognitive theory. This flexibility of the AGL paradigm comes at a price, in that sophisticated modeling and analytical methods are required in order to make precise hypotheses about the psychological basis of AGL performance in particular cases. We review methodological issues and briefly assess a range of analytical tools in AGL.
References
Aslin, R.N., & Newport, E.L
(
2008)
What statistical learning can and can't tell us about language acquisition. In
J. Colombo,
P. McCardle, &
L. Freund (Eds.),
Infant pathways to language: Methods, models, and research directions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ashby, F.G., Alfonso-Reese, L.A., Turken, A.U., & Waldron, E.M
(
1998)
A neuropsychological theory of multiple systems in category learning.
Psychological Review, 105, 442–481.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bailey, T.M. & Pothos, E.M
(
2008)
AGL StimSelect: Software for automated selection of stimuli for Artificial Grammar Learning.
Behavior Research Methods, 40, 164–176.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Bowers, J., & Schacter, D
(
1990)
Implicit memory and awareness.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 16, 404–416.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brooks, L
(
1978)
Nonanalytic concept formation and memory for instances. In
Cognition and Categorization,
E. Rosch &
B.B. Lloyd (eds), 169–211. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Brooks, L., & Vokey, J.R
(
1991)
Abstract analogies and abstracted grammars: Comments on Reber (1989) and Mathews, et al. (1989).
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 316–323.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Boucher, L., & Dienes, Z
(
2003)
Two ways of learning associations.
Cognitive Science, 27, 807–842.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Buchner, A., Erdfelder, E., & Vaterrodt-Plunnecke, B
(
1995)
Toward unbiased measurment of conscious and unconscious memory processes within the process dissociation framework.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 137–160.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chang, G.Y., & Knowlton, B.J
(
2004)
Visual feature learning in artificial grammar classification.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Leaning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 714–722.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chater, N
(
1999)
The search for simplicity: A fundamental cognitive principle? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A, 273–302.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cheesman, J., & Merikle, P.M
(
1984)
Priming with and without awareness.
Perception and Psychophysics, 36, 387–395.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Chomsky, N., & Miller, G.A
(
1958)
Finite state languages.
Information and Control, 1, 91–112.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cleeremans, A., & Destrebecqz, A
(
2005)
Real rules are conscious.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 19–20.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Conway, C.M., Baurnschmidt, A., Huang, S. & Pisoni, D.B
(
2010)
Implicit statistical learning in language processing: Word predictability is the key.
Cognition, 114, 356–371.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Curran, T., & Hintzman, D.L
(
1997)
Consequences and causes of correlations in process dissociation.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 496–504.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Destrebecqz, A., & Cleeremans, A
(
2001)
Can sequence learning be implicit? New evidence with the process dissociation procedure.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 343–350.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z
(
1992)
Connectionist and memory-array models of artificial grammar learning.
Cognitive Science, 16, 41–79.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z
(
2012),
March. Does unconscious learning of artificial grammars exist? In
Exploring the nature and measurement of implicit learning,
Z. Dienes (Chair), Symposium conducted at the 3rd Panhellenic Conference of Cognitive Psychology, Ioannina, Greece.
Dienes, Z., Altmann, G.T.M., Kwan, L., & Goode, A
(
1995)
Unconscious knowledge of artificial grammars is applied strategically.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 21, 1322–1338.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z., & Berry, D
(
1997)
Implicit learning: Below the subjective threshold.
Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 4(1), 3–23.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z., & Longuet-Higgins, H.C
(
2004)
Can musical transformations be implicitly learned? Cognitive Science, 28: 531–558.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z., & Perner, J
(
1999)
A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 735–808.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z., & Perner, J
(
2003)
Unifying consciousness with explicit knowledge. In
The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation,
A. Cleeremans (ed.), 214–232. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dienes, Z., & Scott, R
(
2005)
Measuring unconscious knowledge: Distinguishing structural knowledge and judgment knowledge.
Psychological Research, 69, 338–351.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dodson, C.S., & Johnson, M.K
(
1996)
Some problems with the process dissociation approach to memory.
Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 125, 181–194.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dulany, D.E
(
2003)
Strategies for putting consciousness in its place.
Journal of Consciousness Studies, 10, 33–43.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Dulany, D.E., Carlson, R., & Dewey, G
(
1984)
A case of syntactical learning and judgement: How conscious and how abstract? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 541–555.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Elman, J
(
1990)
Finding structure in time.
Cognitive Science, 14, 179–211.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gomez, R.L., Gerken, L., & Schvaneveldt, R.W
(
2000)
The basis of transfer in artificial grammar learning.
Memory and Cognition, 28, 253–263.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Gomez, R.L., & Schvaneveldt, R.W
(
1994)
What is learned from artificial grammars? Transfer tests of simple association.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 396–410.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hadley, R.F
(
1995)
The “Explicit-Implicit” distinction.
Minds and Machines, 5, 219–242.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hama, M., & Leow, R.P
(
2010)
Learning without awareness revisited: Extending Williams (2005).
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32, 465–491.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Hamrick, P. & Rebuschat, P
(
2013)
Frequency effects, learning conditions, and the development of implicit and explicit lexical knowledge. In
J. Connor-Linton &
L. Amoroso (Eds.),
Measured language: Quantitative approaches to acquisition, assessment, processing and variation (pp. 125–139). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Heindel, W.C., Salmon, D.P., Shultz, C.W., Walicke, P.A., & Butters, N
(
1989)
Neuropsychological evidence for multiple implicit memory systems: A comparison of Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s & Parkinson’s disease patients.
Journal of Neuroscience, 9, 582–587.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Henke, K
(
2010)
A model for memory systems based on processing modes rather than consciousness.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 523–532.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Higham, P.A
(
1997)
Dissociations of grammaticality and specific similarity effects in artificial grammar learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1029–1045.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jacoby, L.L
(
1991)
A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory.
Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513–541.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jacoby, L.L
(
1998)
Invariance in automatic influences of memory: Toward a user’s guide for the process-dissociation procedure.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 24, 3–20.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jacoby, L.L., Begg, I.M., & Toth, J.P
(
1997)
In defense of functional independence: Violations of assumptions underlying the process dissociation procedure? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 484–495.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jacoby, L.L., & Shrout, P.E
(
1997)
Toward a psychometric analysis of violations of the independence assumption in process dissociation.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 505–510.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jamieson, R.K., & Mewhort, D.J.K
(
2005)
The influence of grammatical, local, and organizational redundancy on implicit learning: an analysis using information theory.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 9–23.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jiménez, L., & Méndez, C
(
1999)
When attention is needed for implicit sequence learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 25, 236–259.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Jiménez, L., Méndez, C., & Cleeremans, A
(
1996)
Comparing direct and indirect measure of sequence learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 22, 948–969.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Johnstone, T., & Shanks, D
(
1999)
Two mechanisms in implicit artificial grammar learning? Comment on Meulemans and Van der Linden (1997).
Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 524–531.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kidd, E
(
2012)
Implicit statistical learning is directly associated with the acquisition of syntax.
Developmental Psychology, 48, 171–84.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Kinder, A., & Shanks, D.R
(
2001)
Amnesia and the declarative/nondeclarative distinction: A recurrent network model of classification, recognition, and repetition priming.
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 648–669.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Knowlton, B.J., & Squire, L.R
(
1994)
The information acquired during artificial grammar learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 79–91.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Knowlton, B.J., & Squire, L.R
(
1996)
Artificial grammar depends on implicit acquisition of both abstract and exemplar-specific information.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 169–181.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Knowlton, B.J., Squire, L.R., Paulsen, J.S., Swerdlow, N.R., & Swenson, M
(
1996)
Dissociations within nondeclarative memory in Huntington's disease.
Neuropsychology, 10, 538–548.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Leow, R.P
(
2000)
A study of the role of awareness in foreign language behavior: Aware versus unaware learners.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(4), 557–584.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lewicki, P
(
1986)
Nonconscious social information processing. New York, NY: Academic Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Lieberman, M.D., Chang, G.Y., Chiao, J., Bookheimer, S.Y., & Knowlton, B.J
(
2004)
An event-related fMRI study of artificial grammar learning in a balanced chunk strength design.
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 427–438.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Manza, L., & Reber, A.S
(
1997)
Representing artificial grammar: Transfer across stimulus forms and modalities. In
D. Berry (Ed.),
How implicit is implicit learning? (pp. 73–106). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
McClelland, J.L., & Rumelhart, D.E
(
1985)
Distributed memory and the representation of general and specific information.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 159–188.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Medin, D.L., & Schaffer, M.M
(
1978)
Context theory of classification learning.
Psychological Review, 85, 207–238.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Meulemans, T., & van der Linden, M
(
1997)
Associative chunk strength in artificial grammar learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 23, 1007–1028.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Miller, G.A
(
1958)
Free recall of redundant strings of letters.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, 485–491.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Misyak, J.B., & Christiansen, M.H
(
2012)
Statistical learning and language: An individual differences study.
Language Learning, 62, 302–331.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Moody, T.D., Bookheimer, S.Y., Vanek, Z., & Knowlton, B.J
(
2004)
An implicit learning task activates medial temporal lobe in patients with Parkinson’s disease.
Behavioral Neuroscience, 118, 438–442.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Nosofsky, R
(
1988)
Exemplar based accounts of relations between classification, recognition, and typicality.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 14, 700–708.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Packard, M.G., & Knowlton, B.J
(
2002)
Learning and memory functions of the basal ganglia.
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25, 563–593.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Perruchet, P., & Pacteau, C
(
1990)
Synthetic grammar learning: Implicit rule abstraction or explicit fragmentary knowledge? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,
119, 264–275.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Poldrack, R.A., Clark, J., Paré-Blagoev, E.J., Shohamy, D., Creso Moyano, J., Myers, C., & Gluck, M.A
(
2001)
Interactive memory systems in the human brain.
Nature, 414, 546–550.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Poletiek, F.H., & van Schijndel, T.J.P
(
2009)
Stimulus set size and statistical coverage of the grammar in artificial grammar learning.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 1058–1064.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M
(
2005a)
The rules versus similarity distinction.
Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 28, 1–49.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M
(
2005b)
Expectations about stimulus structure in implicit learning.
Memory & Cognition, 33, 171–181.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M
(
2007)
Theories of artificial grammar learning.
Psychological Bulletin, 133(2), 227–244.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M
(
2010)
An entropy model for Artificial Grammar Learning.
Frontiers in Cognitive Science, 1: 1–13.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M., & Bailey, T.M
(
2000)
The role of similarity in artificial grammar learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26, 847–862.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M., & Wood, R.L
(
2009)
Separate influences in learning: evidence from artificial grammar learning with traumatic brain injury patients.
Brain Research, 1275, 67–72.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Pothos, E.M., Chater, N., & Ziori, E
(
2006)
Does stimulus appearance affect learning? The American Journal of Psychology, 119, 277–301.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rathus, J.H., Reber, A.S, Manza, L., & Kushner, M
(
1994)
Implicit and explicit learning: Differential effects of affective states.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79, 163–184.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S
(
1967)
Implicit learning of artificial grammars.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 855–863.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S
(
1969)
Transfer of syntactic structure in synthetic languages.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 115–119.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S
(
1976)
Implicit learning of synthetic languages: The role of instructional set.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 88–94.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S
(
1989)
Implicit learning and tacit knowledge.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 219–235.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S
(
1993)
Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S., & Allen, R
(
1978)
Analogy and abstraction strategies in synthetic grammar learning: A functionalist interpretation.
Cognition, 6, 189–221.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S., Allen, R., & Regan, S
(
1985)
Syntactical learning and judgment, still unconscious and still abstract: Comment on Dulany, Carlson, and Dewey.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 17–24.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, P.J., Gitelman, D.R., Parrish, T.B., & Mesulam, M.M
(
2003)
Dissociating explicit and implicit category knowledge with fMRI.
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 574–583.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, A.S., & Lewis, S
(
1977)
Toward a theory of implicit learning: The analysis of the form and structure of a body of tacit knowledge.
Cognition, 5, 333–361.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Reber, P.J., & Squire, L.R
(
1999)
Intact learning of artificial grammars and intact category learning by patients with Parkinson’s disease.
Behavioral Neuroscience, 113, 235–242.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rebuschat, P
(
2008)
Implicit learning of natural language syntax. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Cambridge.
Rebuschat, P
(
2013)
Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge in second language research.
Language Learning, 63, 595–626.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rebuschat, P., Hamrick, P., Sachs, R., Riestenberg, K., & Ziegler, N
(
2013)
Implicit and explicit knowledge of form-meaning connections: Evidence from subjective measures of awareness. In
J. Bergsleithner,
S. Frota, &
J.K. Yoshioka (Eds.),
Noticing: L2 studies and essays in honor of Dick Schmidt (pp. 255–275). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rebuschat, P., & Williams, J.N
(
2012)
Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language acquisition.
Applied Psycholinguistics, 33(4), 829–856.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Redington, M., & Chater, N
(
1996)
Transfer in artificial grammar learning: A reevaluation.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 123–138.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Redington, M., Friend, M. & Chater, N
(
1996)
Confidence judgments, performance, and practice, in artificial grammar learning. In
G.W. Cottrell (Ed.),
Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 649–654). Mawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Rohrmeier, M., & Rebuschat, P
(
2012)
Implicit learning and acquisition of music.
Topics in Cognitive Science, 4(4), 525–553.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Saffran, J.R., Aslin, R.N., & Newport, E.L
(
1996)
Statistical learning by 8-month old infants.
Science, 274, 1926–1928.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Saffran, J., Newport, E., Aslin, R., Tunick, R., & Barrueco, S
(
1997)
Incidental language learning: Listening (and learning) out of the corner of your ear.
Psychological Science, 8, 101–105.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Schacter, D.L
(
1987)
Implicit memory: History and current status.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13, 501–518.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Scott, R.B., & Dienes, Z
(
2008)
The conscious, the unconscious, and familiarity.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 5, 1264–1288.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Searle, J.R
(
1992)
The rediscovery of the mind. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Seger, C.A., Prabhakaran, V., Poldrack, R.A., & Gabrieli, J.D.E
(
2000)
Neural activity differs between explicit and implicit learning of artificial grammar strings: An fMRI study.
Psychobiology, 28(3), 283–292.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Servan-Schreiber E., Anderson J.R
(
1990)
Learning artificial grammars with competitive chunking.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 16, 592–608.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shanks, D.R., & Channon, S
(
2002)
Effects of a secondary task on “implicit” sequence learning: Learning or performance? Psychological Research, 66, 99–109.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Shanks, D.R., & St. John, M.F
(
1994)
Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems.
Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 17, 367–447.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Skosnik, P.D., Mirza, F., Gitelman, D.R., Parrish, T.B., Mesulam, M.M., & Reber, P.J
(
2002)
Neural correlates of artificial grammar learning.
NeuroImage, 17, 1306–1314.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tillman, B., Bharucha, J.J., & Bigand, E
(
2000)
Implicit learning of tonality: A self-organizing approach.
Psychological Review, 107, 885–913.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tunney, R.J., & Altmann, G.T.M
(
1999)
The transfer effect in artificial grammar learning: Reappraising the evidence on the transfer of sequential dependencies.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 25, 1322–1333.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tunney, R.J., & Altmann, G.T.M
(
2001)
Two modes of transfer in artificial grammar learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1322–1333.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Tunney, R.J., & Shanks, D.R
(
2003)
Does opposition logic provide evidence for conscious and unconscious processes in artificial grammar learning? Consciousness and Cognition, 12, 201–218.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Van den Bos, E. & Poletiek, F.H
(
2008)
Effects of grammar complexity on artificial grammar learning.
Memory & Cognition, 36, 1122–1131.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Visser, I., Raijmakers, M.E.J., & Pothos, E.M
(
2009)
Individual strategies in artificial grammar learning.
American Journal of Psychology, 122, 293–307.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Vokey, J.R., & Brooks, L.R
(
1992)
Salience of item knowledge in learning artificial grammars.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, 328–344.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Vokey, J.R., & Brooks, L.R
(
1994)
Fragmentary knowledge and the processing-specific control of structural sensitivity.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1504–1510.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Waldron, E.M., & Ashby, F.G
(
2001)
The effects of concurrent task interference on category learning: Evidence for multiple category learning systems.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 168–176.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Williams, J.N
(
2005)
Learning without awareness.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 269–304.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Williams, J.N
(
2009)
Implicit learning in second language acquisition. In
W.C. Ritchie &
T.K. Bhatia (Eds.),
The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 319–353). Bingley: Emerald Press.
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Witt, K., Nuehsman, A., & Deuschl, G
(
2002)
Intact artificial grammar learning in patients with cerebellar degeneration and advanced Parkinson’s disease.
Neuropsychologia, 40, 1534–1540.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ziori, E., & Dienes, Z
(
2006)
Subjective measures of unconscious knowledge of concepts.
Mind & Society, 5, 105–122.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Ziori, E., & Dienes, Z
(
2008)
How does prior knowledge affect implicit and explicit concept learning? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 601–624.
![DOI logo](https://benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
![Google Scholar](https://benjamins.com/logos/google-scholar.svg)
Cited by
Cited by 1 other publications
Ziori, Eleni
2023.
The power of the cognitive unconscious: The case of implicit learning.
Psychology: the Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society 28:2
► pp. 1 ff.
![DOI logo](//benjamins.com/logos/doi-logo.svg)
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 23 june 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.