Chapter published in:
Growing Old with Two Languages: Effects of Bilingualism on Cognitive Aging
Edited by Ellen Bialystok and Margot D. Sullivan
[Studies in Bilingualism 53] 2017
► pp. 265–295

Chapter 13. History-inspired reflections on the Bilingual Advantages Hypothesis

| McGill University
| McGill University
| McGill University
| McGill University
| McGill University

In recent years, there has been much debate regarding the hypothesis that bilingual language experience leads to “advantages” in neurocognition, particularly, in executive control. This debate has played out most excitedly with respect to younger adults, but it has also occurred with respect to older adults, the topic of this volume. In this chapter, we reflect upon the nature of debate concerning the bilingual advantages hypothesis within our field, a debate that directly impacts both how we are viewed as scientists from the outside our field, and the message we send to the next generation of scientists within our field. We first recount the theoretical basis of the bilingual advantages hypothesis. We then reflect upon how this hypothesis relates to foundational controversies long-standing in the language sciences and offer our idiosyncratic interpretation regarding the current status of the debate. Finally, we enumerate several concluding thoughts about how our field might proceed more effectively when investigating the relationships between bilingualism and neurocognition.

Keywords: bilingualism, historical reflections, executive control, scientific debate
Published online: 07 August 2017
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.53.13tit
References

References

Abutalebi, J., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., & Weekes, B. S.
(2015) The neuroprotective effects of bilingualism upon the inferior parietal lobule: A structural neuroimaging study in aging Chinese bilinguals. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 33, 3–13. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Sheung, L. P., Green, D. W., & Weekes, B. S.
(2014) Bilingualism protects anterior temporal lobe integrity in aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 35(9), 2126–2133. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. W.
(2007) Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(3), 242–275. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2008) Control mechanisms in bilingual language production: Neural evidence from language switching studies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(4), 557–582. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., Tettamanti, M., & Perani, D.
(2009) The bilingual brain: Linguistic and non-linguistic skills. Brain and Language, 109(2–3), 51–54. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Mekala, S., Rajan, A., Chaudhuri, J. R., Mioshi, E., … Kaul, S.
(2016) Impact of bilingualism on cognitive outcome after stroke. Stroke, 47, 258–261. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ansaldo, A. I., Ghazi-Saidi, L., & Adrover-Roig, D.
(2015) Interference control in elderly bilinguals: Appearances can be misleading. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(5), 455–470. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, J. E., Eisenband, J. G., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Trueswell, J. C.
(2000) The rapid use of gender information: Evidence of the time course of pronoun resolution from eyetracking. Cognition, 76(1), B13–B26. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Baayen, R. H., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M.
(2008) Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59(4), 390–412. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bak, T. H., Nissan, J. J., Allerhand, M. M., & Deary, I. J.
(2014) Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of Neurology, 75, 959–963. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Baum, S., & Titone, D.
(2014) Moving toward a neuroplasticity view of bilingualism, executive control, and aging. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(5), 857–894. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Berger, J. O., & Sellke, T.
(1987) Testing a point null hypothesis: The irreconcilability of p values and evidence. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 82(397), 112–122.Google Scholar
Berroir, P., Ghazi-Saidi, L., Dash, T., Adrover-Roig, D., Benali, H., & Ansaldo, A. I.
(2016) Interference control at the response level: Functional networks reveal higher efficiency in the bilingual brain. Journal of Neurolinguistics. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E.
(1986) Factors in the growth of linguistic awareness. Child Development, 498–510. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1988) Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 560. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1997) Effects of bilingualism and biliteracy on children’s emerging concepts of print. Developmental psychology, 33(3), 429. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2001) Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge, UK: CUP. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Barac, R.
(2012) Emerging bilingualism: Dissociating advantages for metalinguistic awareness and executive control. Cognition, 122(1), 67–73. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Craik, F. I.
(2010) Cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 19–23. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Freedman, M.
(2007) Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M.
(2004) Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the simon task. Psycholgy and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G.
(2012) Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Luk, G., Peets, K. F., & Yang, S. J.
(2010) Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(4), 525–531. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Majumder, S.
(1998) The relationship between bilingualism and the development of cognitive processes in problem solving. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19(01), 69–85. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V.
(2011) Bilingualism influences inhibitory control in auditory comprehension. Cognition, 118(2), 245–257. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Braver, T. S.
(2012) The variable nature of cognitive control: A dual mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 106–113. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Burke, D. M.
(1997) Language, aging, and inhibitory deficits: Evaluation of a theory. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52(6), P254–P264. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E.
(2014) Independent effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on language ability and executive functioning. Cognition, 130(3), 278–288. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Calvo, N., García, A. M., Manoiloff, L., & Ibáñez, A.
(2015) Bilingualism and cognitive reserve: A critical overview and a plea for methodological innovations. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 249. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N.
(2008) Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Developmental Science, 11(2), 282–298. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Chertkow, H., Whitehead, V., Phillips, N., Wolfson, C., Atherton, J., & Bergman, H.
(2010) Multilingualism (but not always bilingualism) delays the onset of alzheimer disease: Evidence from a bilingual community. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 24(2), 118–125. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Christoffels, I. K., Firk, C., & Schiller, N. O.
(2007) Bilingual language control: An event-related brain potential study. Brain Research, 1147, 192–208. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Costa, A., Hernández, M., & Sebastián-Gallés, N.
(2008) Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ant task. Cognition, 106(1), 59–86. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Craik, F. I., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M.
(2010) Delaying the onset of alzheimer disease bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726–1729. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Darowski, E. S., Helder, E., Zacks, R. T., Hasher, L., & Hambrick, D. Z.
(2008) Age-related differences in cognition: The role of distraction control. Neuropsychology, 22(5), 638. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
de Abreu, E. P. M., Cruz-Santos, A., Tourinho, C. J., Martin, R., & Bialystok, E.
(2012) Bilingualism enriches the poor: Enhanced cognitive control in low-income minority children. Psychological Science, 23(11), 1364–1371. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
de Bruin, A., Treccani, B., & Della Sala, S.
(2015) Cognitive advantage in bilingualism: An example of publication bias? Psychological Science, 26(1), 99–107. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
De Groot, A. M. B.
(2011) Language and cognition in bilinguals and multilinguals: An introduction. New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
De Groot, A. M. B., & Christoffels, I. K.
(2006) Language control in bilinguals: Monolingual tasks and simultaneous interpreting. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(2), 189–201. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Dijkstra, T.
(2005) Bilingual visual word recognition and lexical access. In J. F. Kroll & A. De Groot (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches (pp. 179–201). Oxford, UK: OUP.Google Scholar
Dijkstra, T., Miwa, K., Brummelhuis, B., Sappelli, M., & Baayen, R. H.
(2010) How cross-language similarity and task demands affect cognate recognition. Journal of Memory and Language, 62(3), 284–301. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Duffy, S. A., Kambe, G., & Rayner, K.
(2001) The effect of prior disambiguating context on the comprehension of ambiguous words: Evidence from eye movements. In D. S. Gorfein (Ed.), On the consequences of meaning selection: Perspectives on resolving lexical ambiguity (pp. 27–43). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Faroqi-Shah, Y., Sampson, M., Pranger, M., & Baughman, S.
(2016) Cognitive control, word retrieval and bilingual aphasia: Is there a relationship? Journal of Neurolinguistics. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Favreau, M., & Segalowitz, N. S.
(1983) Automatic and controlled processes in the 1st-language and 2nd-language reading of fluent bilinguals. Memory & Cognition, 11(6), 565–574. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Fernandes, M. A., Craik, F., Bialystok, E., & Kreuger, S.
(2007) Effects of bilingualism, aging, and semantic relatedness on memory under divided attention. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(2), 128–141. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A.
(1983) The modularity of mind: An essay on faculty psychology. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Folk, J. R., & Morris, R. K.
(2003) Effects of syntactic category assignment on lexical ambiguity resolution in reading: An eye movement analysis. Memory & Cognition, 31(1), 87–99. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Friesen, D. C., Chung-Fat-Yim, A., & Bialystok, E.
(2016) Lexical selection differences between monolingual and bilingual listeners. Brain and Language, 152, 1–13. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, H.
(1985) The mind’s new science. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gathercole, V. C., Thomas, E. M., Kennedy, I., Prys, C., Young, N., Vinas Guasch, N., … Jones, L.
(2014) Does language dominance affect cognitive performance in bilinguals? Lifespan evidence from preschoolers through older adults on card sorting, simon, and metalinguistic tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(11). CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F., & Lindholm-Leary, K.
(2013) Two case studies of content-based language education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 1(1), 3–33. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Goetz, P. J.
(2003) The effects of bilingualism on theory of mind development. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6(01), 1–15. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., Cera, C., & Sandoval, T. C.
(2008) More use almost always means a smaller frequency effect: Aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(3), 787–814. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gollan, T. H., Slattery, T. J., Goldenberg, D., Van Assche, E., Duyck, W., & Rayner, K.
(2011) Frequency drives lexical access in reading but not in speaking: The frequency-lag hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(2), 186–209. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J.
(1996) The mismeasure of man. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Green, D. W.
(1998) Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 67–81. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2011) Language control in different contexts: The behavioral ecology of bilingual speakers. Frontiers in Psychology, 2. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J.
(2013) Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Grotz, C., Meillon, C., Amieva, H., Stern, Y., Dartigues, J. F., Adam, S., & Letenneur, L.
(2016) Why is later age at retirement beneficial for cognition? Results from a French population-based study. Journal of Nutrition Health & Aging, 20(5), 514–519. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Guo, T., Liu, H., Misra, M., & Kroll, J. F.
(2011) Local and global inhibition in bilingual word production: Fmri evidence from Chinese-English bilinguals. Neuroimage, 56(4), 2300–2309. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Harris, R. A.
(1995) The linguistics wars. Oxford, UK: OUP.Google Scholar
Hartanto, A., & Yang, H. J.
(2016) Disparate bilingual experiences modulate task-switching advantages: A diffusion-model analysis of the effects of interactional context on switch costs. Cognition, 150, 10–19. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hasher, L., Lustig, C., & Zacks, R.
(2007) Inhibitory mechanisms and the control of attention. In A. R. A. Conway, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake, & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 227–249). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hedden, T., & Gabrieli, J. D.
(2004) Insights into the ageing mind: A view from cognitive neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(2), 87–96. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hilchey, M. D., & Klein, R. M.
(2011) Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(4), 625–658. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2012) Bilingual cognitive control advantages: Methods, findings, and theory. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie Experimentale, 66(4), 312–312.Google Scholar
Ito, K., & Speer, S. R.
(2008) Anticipatory effects of intonation: Eye movements during instructed visual search. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(2), 541–573. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Itzhak, I., & Baum, S. R.
(2015) Misleading bias-driven expectations in referential processing and the facilitative role of contrastive accent. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 44(5), 623–650. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ivanova, I., & Costa, A.
(2008) Does bilingualism hamper lexical access in speech production? Acta Psychologica, 127(2), 277–288. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kambe, G., Rayner, K., & Duffy, S. A.
(2001) Global context effects on processing lexically ambiguous words: Evidence from eye fixations. Memory & Cognition, 29(2), 363–372. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kapa, L. L., & Colombo, J.
(2013) Attentional control in early and later bilingual children. Cognitive Development, 28(3), 233–246. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kawamoto, A. H.
(1988) Distributed representations of ambiguous words and their resolution in a connectionist network. In S. L. Small, G. W. Cottrell, & M. K. Tanenhaus (Eds.), Lexical ambiguity resolution: Perspectives from psycholinguistics, neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence (pp. 195–228). San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Keijzer, M. C., & Schmid, M. S.
(2016) Individual differences in cognitive control advantages of elderly late Dutch-English bilinguals. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6, 64–85. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kjelgaard, M. M., Titone, D., & Wingfield, A.
(1999) The influence of prosodic structure on the interpretation of temporary syntactic ambiguity by young and elderly listeners. Experimental Aging Research, 25(3), 187–207. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R. M., Christie, J., & Parkvall, M.
(2016) Does multilingualism affect the incidence of alzheimer’s disease?: A worldwide analysis by country. SSM-Population Health, 2, 463–467. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kovács, Á. M., & Mehler, J.
(2009) Cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(16), 6556–6560. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Krizman, J., Skoe, E., & Kraus, N.
(2015) Bilingual enhancements have no socioeconomic boundaries. Developmental Science. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Bobb, S. C., Misra, M., & Guo, T.
(2008) Language selection in bilingual speech: Evidence for inhibitory processes. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 416–430. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Dussias, P. E., Bogulski, C. A., & Kroff, J. R. V.
(2012) Juggling two languages in one mind: What bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 56, pp. 229–262). Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S.
(1970) The structure of scientific revolutions, international encyclopedia of unified science, vol. 2, no. 2. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Laurie, S. S.
(1890) Lectures on language and linguistic method in school. Cambridge, UK: CUP.Google Scholar
Libben, M. R., & Titone, D. A.
(2009) Bilingual lexical access in context: Evidence from eye movements during reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 35(2), 381–390. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Linck, J. A., Hoshino, N., & Kroll, J. F.
(2008) Cross-language lexical porcesses and inhibitory control. Mental Lexicon, 3, 349–374. Crossref.Google Scholar
Luk, G., Green, D. W., Abutalebi, J., & Grady, C.
(2012) Cognitive control for language switching in bilinguals: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 27(10), 1479–1488. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Macizo, P., Bajo, T., & Martin, M. C.
(2010) Inhibitory processes in bilingual language comprehension: Evidence from Spanish-English interlexical homographs. Journal of Memory and Language, 63(2), 232–244. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Marian, V., & Spivey, M.
(1999) Activation of Russian and English cohorts during bilingual spoken word recognition. Proceedings of the Twenty First Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 349–354.Google Scholar
Martin, M. C., Macizo, P., & Bajo, T.
(2010) Time course of inhibitory processes in bilingual language processing. British Journal of Psychology, 101, 679–693. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Martin-Rhee, M. M., & Bialystok, E.
(2008) The development of two types of inhibitory control in monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11(01), 81–93. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Mercier, J., Pivneva, I., & Titone, D.
(2014) Individual differences in inhibitory control relate to bilingual spoken word processing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(1), 89–117. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Meuter, R. F. I., & Allport, A.
(1999) Bilingual language switching in naming: Asymmetrical costs of language selection. Journal of Memory and Language, 40(1), 25–40. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, A. M., & Federmeier, K. D.
(2008) The divided visual world paradigm: Eye tracking reveals hemispheric asymmetries in lexical ambiguity resolution. Brain Research, 1222, 166–183. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Michael, E. B., & Gollan, T. H.
(2005) Being and becoming bilingual: Individual differences and consequences for language production. In J. F. Kroll & A. M. B. de Groot (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. Oxford, UK: OUP.Google Scholar
Misra, M., Guo, T., Bobb, S. C., & Kroll, J. F.
(2012) When bilinguals choose a single word to speak: Electrophysiological evidence for inhibition of the native language. Journal of Memory and Language, 67(1), 224–237. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P.
(2012) The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8–14. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E.
(2013) Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114(2), 187–202. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J. B., & Harper, S. N.
(2007) What did simon say? Revisiting the bilingual advantage. Developmental Science, 10, 719–726. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2009) Bilinguals show an advantage in cognitive control - the question is why. Developmental Science, 12(4), 502–503. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nair, V., Biedermann, B., & Nickels, L.
(2016) Effect of socio-economic status on cognitive control in non-literate bilingual speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–11. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nickerson, R. S.
(2000) Null hypothesis significance testing: A review of an old and continuing controversy. Psychological Methods, 5(2), 241. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R.
(2012) No coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie Experimentale, 66(4), 313–313.Google Scholar
Paap, K. R., Darrow, J., Dalibar, C., & Johnson, H. A.
(2015) Effects of script similarity on bilingual advantages in executive control are likely to be negligible or null. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I.
(2013) There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66(2), 232–258. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R., Johnson, H. A., & Sawi, O.
(2014) Are bilingual advantages dependent upon specific tasks or specific bilingual experiences? Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26(6), 615–639. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2015) Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances. Cortex, 69, 265–278. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2016) Should the search for bilingual advantages in executive functioning continue? Cortex, 74, 305–314. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R., & Liu, Y. Y.
(2014) Conflict resolution in sentence processing is the same for bilinguals and monolinguals: The role of confirmation bias in testing for bilingual advantages. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 27(1), 50–74. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paradis, M.
(2000) Generalizable outcomes of bilingual aphasia research. Folia Phoniatrica Et Logopaedica, 52(1–3), 54–64. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pauker, E., Itzhak, I., Baum, S. R., & Steinhauer, K.
(2011) Effects of cooperating and conflicting prosody in spoken English garden path sentences: Erp evidence for the boundary deletion hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(10), 2731–2751. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Peal, E., & Lambert, W. E.
(1962) The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs, 76(27), 1–23. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pivneva, I., Mercier, J., & Titone, D.
(2014) Executive control modulates cross-language lexical activation during L2 reading: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40, 787–796. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pivneva, I., Palmer, C., & Titone, D.
(2012) Inhibitory control and L2 proficiency modulate bilingual language production: Evidence from spontaneous monologue and dialogue speech. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Poarch, G. J., & van Hell, J. G.
(2012) Executive functions and inhibitory control in multilingual children: Evidence from second-language learners, bilinguals, and trilinguals. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113(4), 535–551. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ramos, S., Fernández García, Y., Antón, E., Casaponsa, A., & Duñabeitia, J. A.
(2016) Does learning a language in the elderly enhance switching ability? Journal of Neurolinguistics. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ross, J., & Melinger, A.
(2016) Bilingual advantage, bidialectal advantage or neither? Comparing performance across three tests of executive function in middle childhood. Developmental Science. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A.
(1986) The role of experience in cognitive aging. Annual Review of Gerontology & Geriatrics, 7, 135–158.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A., & Maurer, T. J.
(1996) Aging, job performance, and career development. In J. E. Birren, K. W. Schaie, R. P. Abeles, M. Gatz, & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (4th ed., pp. 353–364). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A., & Meinz, E. J.
(1995) Aging, inhibition, working memory, and speed. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 50(6), P297–P306. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, B., Speranza, F., & Pichora-Fuller, M. K.
(1998) Age-related changes in temporal resolution: Envelope and intensity effects. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie Experimentale, 52(4), 184. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, B. A., Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Kowalchuk, D., & Lamb, M.
(1994) Gap detection and the precedence effect in young and old adults. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 95(2), 980–991. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, A. I., & Kroll, J. F.
(2006) Bilingual lexical activation in sentence context. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(2), 197–212. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Segalowitz, N.
(2010) The cognitive bases of second language fluency. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, N., & Hulstijn, J.
(2005) Automaticity in bilingualism and second language learning. In J. F. Kroll & A. M. B. De Groot (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. Oxford, UK: OUP.Google Scholar
Skloot, R.
(2010) The immortal life of henrietta lacks. New York, NY: Crown Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Sorensen, T., & Vasishth, S.
(2015) Bayesian linear mixed models using stan: A tutorial for psychologists, linguists, and cognitive scientists. arXiv preprint arXiv:1506.06201.Google Scholar
Stern, Y.
(2012) Cognitive reserve in ageing and alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet Neurology, 11(11), 1006–1012. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. X., & Tsai, W. Y.
(1999) Rate of memory decline in ad is related to education and occupation - cognitive reserve? Neurology, 53(9), 1942–1947. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sturt, P., Scheepers, C., & Pickering, M.
(2002) Syntactic ambiguity resolution after initial misanalysis: The role of recency. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(2), 371–390. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Stuss, D. T.
(2011) Functions of the frontal lobes: Relation to executive functions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(5), 759–765. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Titone, D., & Baum, S.
(2014) The future of bilingualism research: Insufferably optimistic and replete with new questions. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(5), 933–942. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Titone, D., Koh, C. K., Kjelgaard, M. M., Bruce, S., Speer, S. R., & Wingfield, A.
(2006) Age-related impairments in the revision of syntactic misanalyses: Effects of prosody. Language and Speech, 49(1), 75–99. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Titone, D., Libben, M., Mercier, J., Whitford, V., & Pivneva, I.
(2011) Bilingual lexical access during L1 sentence reading: The effects of L2 knowledge, semantic constraint, and L1-L2 intermixing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 37(6), 1412–1431. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M.
(2009) Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition: Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Tucker, A. M., & Stern, Y.
(2011) Cognitive reserve in aging. Current Alzheimer Research, 8(4), 354–360. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Valian, V.
(2015) Bilingualism and cognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 3–24. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Van Assche, E., Duyck, W., & Hartsuiker, R. J.
(2012) Bilingual word recognition in a sentence context. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Hell, J. G., & De Groot, A. M. B.
(2008) Sentence context modulates visual word recognition and translation in bilinguals. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 431–451. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
van Hell, J. G., & Tanner, D.
(2012) Second language proficiency and cross-language lexical activation. Language Learning, 62, 148–171. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
von Bastian, C. C., Souza, A. S., & Gade, M.
(2016) No evidence for bilingual cognitive advantages: A test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(2), 246–258. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
von Studnitz, R. E., & Green, D. W.
(2002) The cost of switching language in a semantic categorization task. Bilingualism-Language and Cognition, 5(3), 241–251. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Whitford, V., & Titone, D.
(2012) Second-language experience modulates first- and second-language word frequency effects: Evidence from eye movement measures of natural paragraph reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(1), 73–80. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Woumans, E., Santens, P., Sieben, A., Versijpt, J., Stevens, M., & Duyck, W.
(2015) Bilingualism delays clinical manifestation of alzheimer’s disease. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(03), 568–574. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Yang, H. J., Hartanto, A., & Yang, S. J.
(2016a) The complex nature of bilinguals’ language usage modulates task-switching outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2016b) The importance of bilingual experience in assessing bilingual advantages in executive functions. Cortex, 75, 237–240. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Yang, S., Yang, H., & Lust, B.
(2011) Early childhood bilingualism leads to advances in executive attention: Dissociating culture and language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(03), 412–422. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Yong, E.
(2015) The bitter fight over the benefits of bilingualism. The Atlantic.Google Scholar
Yoshida, H., Tran, D. N., Benitez, V., & Kuwabara, M.
(2011) Inhibition and adjective learning in bilingual and monolingual children. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 210. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Schofield, P. W., Farrell, M. T., Stern, Y., & Manly, J. J.
(2014) Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among Spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 238. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Stern, Y., & Manly, J. J.
(2015) Differing effects of education on cognitive decline in diverse elders with low versus high educational attainment. Neuropsychology, 29(4), 649–657. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by other publications

Antoniou, Mark
2019. The Advantages of Bilingualism Debate. Annual Review of Linguistics 5:1 ► pp. 395 ff. Crossref logo
Nickels, Lyndsey, Solène Hameau, Vishnu K. K. Nair, Polly Barr & Britta Biedermann
2019. Ageing with bilingualism: benefits and challenges. Speech, Language and Hearing 22:1 ► pp. 32 ff. Crossref logo
Schroeder, Scott R.
2018. Do Bilinguals Have an Advantage in Theory of Mind? A Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Communication 3 Crossref logo
SUBRAMANIAPILLAI, SIVANIYA, MARIA NATASHA RAJAH, STAMATOULA PASVANIS & DEBRA TITONE
2019. Bilingual experience and executive control over the adult lifespan: The role of biological sex. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 22:04 ► pp. 733 ff. Crossref logo
Titone, Debra, Julie Mercier, Aruna Sudarshan, Irina Pivneva, Jason Gullifer & Shari Baum
2020. Spoken word processing in bilingual older adults. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism Crossref logo
Whitford, Veronica & Gigi Luk
2019.  In Bilingualism, Executive Function, and Beyond [Studies in Bilingualism, 57], ► pp. 67 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 28 august 2020. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.