Index

• Abrahamsson, N. 58, 61, 64 , 65

• Abutalebi, J. 16, 32, 39, 44, 80, 220, 225

• accent 55, 61–62 ; see also length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance

• adaptive control hypothesis 16, 44, 80–81, 270–272

• Adesope, O. O.162

• Adolfsson, R. 4, 6

• Adrover-Roig, D. 278–279

• Age of Acquisition (AoA)
  • as confounding variable 251–253
  • age at testing, length of residence issues and 65–69, 68 , 69
  • differential changes in language 41–42

• Aging and Bilingualism 6

• aging population statistics 1, 185–186

• Alladi, S. 207, 214

• Allport, A.30

• Alzheimer's disease
  • Alzheimer's Disease Research Center (UCSD)106
  • cognitive reserve (CR) compared to brain reserve (BR) in bilinguals 226–227
  • criteria for 209–210
  • language processing22
  • overview 1, 4 ; see also Betula longitudinal cohort study; cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease

• American Psychiatric Association209

• Amieva, H.236

• Andrés, P. 233–234

• Ansaldo, A. I. 278–279

• Aoyama, K. 64

• Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ɛ4 allele 207, 210–212, 211 , 214

• Applied Psycholinguistics 281–282

• Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Chomsky)253

• auditory processing273

• auditory word recognition 131–159
  • data coding of 139–140
  • language processing and 31, 146–149, 148
  • overview 3, 6, 131–133
  • picture identification trials for 136 , 136–139, 148
  • residual activation/inhibition (priming probes) 137 , 137–139, 145–146, 148 , 150–151
  • study conclusions 149–154
  • study design 133–135, 134
  • study participants 135–136, 136
  • study procedure139
  • target identification 140–145, 141 – 145 , 149–150

• Babcock, L. 63

• Bak, T. H. 5, 43, 197, 207, 251–252

• Baker, W. 61, 63

• balanced bilinguals
  • cognitive aging and 14–16
  • cognitive control and 81–82 ; see also language control

• Bartning, I. 62, 64 , 65t

• Baum, S. 220, 259, 281–282, 286

• behavioral measures of cognitive aging.language processing

• Betula longitudinal cohort study 205–218
  • conclusions 212–215
  • longitudinal design method214
  • measures 209–210
  • overview 4, 6, 205–208
  • participants 207–209, 208
  • results 211 , 211–212
  • statistical analysis210

• Bialystok, E.
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis 267, 276–277, 279–280, 282
  • bilingualism and late onset of dementia 4, 244, 249, 258
  • cognitive aging 11–14
  • cognitive control 5, 6, 85
  • cognitive reserve (CR) 188, 192, 232
  • dementia and bilingualism (Betula study)213
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM) 162–165, 176, 178, 179
  • length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance 62
  • Toronto (Canada) memory clinic study 14, 232, 254, 258, 279

• big data approach, to dementia research237

• bilingual advantages hypothesis 265–295
  • cognitive control and 79–83
  • debates about 276–286
  • debates within linguistics field, generally 272–275
  • defined 268–272
  • overview 6, 265–268

• Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus (BIA+)31

• bilingualism
  • cognitive aging and 9–20
  • as cognitive reserve (CR) variable 190, 224
  • as cognitive training 42–43
  • as contributor to brain reserve (BR) 224–225
  • language proficiency of 135, 212–213, 229, 253, 270–271
  • prejudice toward 256–259, 265–266
  • prevalence of 21–22
  • publication bias in 255–256
  • second language usage after retirement 207, 214 ; see also auditory word recognition; Betula longitudinal cohort study; bilingual advantages hypothesis; cognitive aging; cognitive control; cognitive reserve (CR); confounding variable(s); executive control (EC) processes; language control; language processing; length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance

• Bilingualism 282

• Birdsong, D. 60, 67

• "The Bitter Fight Over the Benefits of Bilingualism" (Yong)275

• Blumenfeld, H. K. 3, 6, 133, 136, 137

• Blunkett, David257

• Bobb, S. 3, 6

• Bohn, O.-S. 63

• Bosch, P.85

• brain anatomy.cognitive aging; cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease; cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia; language processing; neural models

• brain reserve (BR), cognitive reserve (CR) compared to 187, 220–227

• "brain training" procedures 16–17

• Brajot, F.-X. 63

• Branzi, F. M.101

• Bunting, M. F.179

• Burke, D. M.25

• Buschkuehl, M.42

• Calabria, M. 101, 126

• Campanelli, L.13

• Canada, bilingualism in 14, 21–22, 188–189, 226, 232, 254, 258, 267, 279–280

• Cappell, K. A.29

• Catalonia, migrants studied in 247–248

• Cera, C. M. 107–109

• Chauvin, Alexandre 6, 280

• Chertkow, H. 189, 207, 246, 279

• "chicken or egg" question (reverse causality) 250–252, 256, 286

• children
  • advantages of bilingualism for 1, 244
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis 276–277
  • bilingualism and mental flexibility1
  • as immigrants61see also length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
  • intelligence of, and cognitive reserve (CR) 189–190
  • language processing speed 2–3
  • Lothian Birth Cohort study 189–190, 251–252, 254

• Chinese (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals 32–33, 42–43, 80, 194

• Chomsky, Noam 253, 272–273, 284

• Christie, J.4

• Clinton, Hillary266

• code switching.language control

• cognitive aging 9–20
  • consistency of bilingual advantages in older adults278

• effects of bilingualism on cognitive functions 11–12

• executive functions (EF) and 12–17

• LOR and effect on L2 attainment66

• overview 1–2, 6, 9–11

• "proximal" cognitive procedures 10, 15

• word recognition and134see also auditory word recognition; Betula longitudinal cohort study; bilingual advantages hypothesis; cognitive control; cognitive reserve (CR); confounding variable(s); executive control (EC) processes; language control; language processing; length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance

• cognitive control 77–98
  • bilingual advantage and 79–83
  • cognitive and language tasks used in study 84–87, 85
  • data analysis of study 87–88
  • overview 5, 6, 77–79
  • qualitative individual differences examined in study 91 , 91–93, 93
  • quantitative group comparison of study 88–90, 89 , 90
  • results of study 93–96
  • study participants 78, 82–84
  • word recognition and 131–135, 149, 151–154 ; see also executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)

• cognitive decline trajectory 231–237

• "higher baseline" hypothesis and 233–235

• point of inflection 231–233, 235–237

• cognitive reserve (CR)
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis and 271–272
  • brain reserve (BR) compared to 187, 220–227
  • confounding variables of256see also cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease; cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia

• cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease 185–203
  • aging and neurodegeneration 186–187
  • aging population statistics 185–186
  • bilingualism as CR variable190
  • childhood intelligence and verbal fluency factors 189–190
  • CR, defined 187–188
  • executive control pathways, protecting through experience196
  • executive control systems and 192–194, 193 , 195
  • future research in 197–198
  • immigration as factor in 188–189
  • memory systems in aging 191–192

• cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia 219–242
  • APOE as dementia risk factor 207, 210–212, 211 , 214
  • cognitive reserve and brain reserve (BR) definitions 220–227
  • episodic memory function and 227–231
  • overview 3–6, 219–220
  • trajectory of cognitive decline 231–237 ; see also cognitive reserve (CR)

• Colzato, L. S.13

• compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH) model29

• Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing135

• confounding variable(s) 243–264
  • historical perspective about bilingualism 256–259, 265–266
  • immigration status as 245–250
  • medical perspective on 252–256
  • overview 4–6, 243–245
  • reverse causality and 250–252, 256, 286

• Corsi block tests 14, 163

• Cortex 282

• Costa, A. 12, 14, 101

• Craik, F. I. M.
  • cognitive aging 1–2, 6, 14
  • cognitive reserve (CR) 188, 192
  • dementia and bilingualism (Betula study)207
  • executive control (EC) processes 162–165

• Crane, P. K.212

• Critical Period Hypothesis59

• C-test 85 , 86, 88, 89 , 93

• cultural factors, Betula study on206

• Dalibar, C.259

• Darrow, J.259

• Davis, S. W.27

• de Bruin, A. 81, 255

• "decline" abilities 9–11

• DeKeyser, R. M. 58, 65t

• Della Sala, S.81

• dementia
  • APOE as dementia risk factor 207, 210–212, 211 , 214
  • bilingualism and late onset of dementia 4, 244, 249, 258
  • cognitive control and78
  • criteria for 209–210
  • Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)247
  • non-Alzheimer's and cognitive reserve (CR)198
  • onset of, and immigration status 214, 279–280
  • rise of1
  • trajectory of cognitive decline 231–237 ; see also cognitive reserve (CR); cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia; confounding variable(s)

• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association)209

• Diaz, M. 3, 6

• digit span test
  • cognitive aging10
  • cognitive control 84–85, 90 , 93 , 95
  • language control 103, 105, 107
  • language processing25

• Dimensional Overlap Model134

• domain-general executive control functions
  • defined 100–103
  • flanker task measurement for 105, 109, 110, 120–121, 120n
  • working memory performance and164see also executive control (EC) processes

• Duncan, H. D. 6, 226, 234

• Dutch (L1) - English (L2) bilinguals.cognitive control

• Duyck, W. 33, 81, 104

• Easterbook, P. J.255

• education, as confounding variable249

• Engle, R. W.12

• English (L1) bilinguals, dementia and207

• Etherington, Ashley180

• executive control (EC) processes
  • Betula study of bilingualism and dementia206
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis and 268–272, 276–277
  • bilingualism and memory brain networks230
  • cognitive aging and 9–20
  • cognitive control and 80, 85–86, 91–92, 95
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease 192–194, 193 , 195 , 196
  • confounding variables of 253, 258–259
  • language processing 22–23, 25, 35, 37–40, 42–43, 45 ; see also domain-general executive control functions; executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)

• executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM) 161–183
  • modified flanker task 165, 168, 169, 173 , 173–174, 177 , 177–179, 182
  • overview 5, 6, 161–166
  • recent probe task 164–165, 168, 169, 174–176, 175 – 177 , 178, 179, 183
  • star counting task used for 165, 167, 169–172, 171 , 177, 177 , 179, 182
  • study conclusions 177–179
  • study participants 166–168

• experimental design, confounding variables of.confounding variable(s)

• eye-tracking study.auditory word recognition

• Fan, J.110

• Fernandes, M. A. 162, 228

• Festman, J.80

• flanker task
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis and 276–277
  • for domain-general executive control measurement 109, 110, 120–121, 120n, 121 , 123, 124
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM) 165, 168, 169, 173 , 173–174, 177 , 177–179, 182
  • word recognition and134see also language control

• Flege, J. E. 57, 58, 62 , 63 , 64 , 65t

• Fletcher, K. L. 63

• fluency tasks
  • conclusions about 122–127
  • letter fluency task 109–110, 112–115, 118–120, 120n
  • semantic fluency task 109–110, 115–120, 119 , 120n
  • word recognition and134see also language control

• fluid intelligence
  • cognitive aging and10
  • cognitive control and 83–84
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM) 162, 167
  • language processing and39

• Forsberg, F. 64

• Freeman, M. R. 3, 6

• French (L1) bilinguals, dementia and207

• French (L1) Canadians, cognitive reserve (CR) studies189

• frequency-lag hypothesis 35–36, 40–41

• Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)247

• Fuller-Thomson, E. 245–246

• Gass, S.85

• Gazzaley, A.16

• generalized slowing hypothesis25

• Ghazi-Saidi, L. 278–279

• Gold, B. T. 3, 6, 192, 220, 229–230, 280

• Goldberg, D. 5, 6

• Gollan, T. H.
  • cognitive aging11
  • confounding variables 246, 247, 249
  • language control 3, 6, 102, 104, 107–109, 111, 120n
  • language processing33
  • length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance67
  • word recognition and134

• Goral, M. 13, 41

• Grady, C. L. 45, 230

• grammaticality judgment tasks
  • cognitive control and 86, 89
  • length of residence and aging 61, 65

• Granena, G. 61, 62, 62

• Green, D. W. 11, 16, 32, 44, 80

• Greenberg, Z. I. 254–255, 258, 259

• Grotjahn, R.86

• Guo, T.33

• Guzmán-Vélez, E.220

• Hämäläinen, H.13

• Hamm, V. P.26

• Hancock, V. 62, 64 , 65t

• Hansson, P. 4, 6, 233–234

• Harper, S. N.280

• Hartanto, A.271

• Hartsuiker, R.81

• Hasher, L.26

• Haverkort, M.85

• healthy aging.cognitive aging

• "healthy migrant" hypothesis 245–250

• Hebb, Donald272

• Hernández, M.101

• Higby, E. 5, 6

• "high-attachment preference" strategy 27–28

• Hilchey, M. D.280

• Hispanic migrants, study of 246, 249

• "hold" abilities 9–11

• Holt, L. L. 64

• Hopp, H. C.66

• Hugdahl, K. 13, 85

• human linguistic capacity, debate about 272–273

• Hyderabad (India) study 249–250

• Hyltenstam, K. 58, 64

• Imai, S.65t

• immigration status
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease 188–189
  • as confounding variable 245–250
  • immigrants as late bilingualscognitive control
  • immigration, time oflength of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
  • onset of dementia and 214, 279–280

• India
  • cognitive reserve (CR) studies189
  • Hyderabad study 249–250

• Ingvalson, E. M. 64

• inhibition
  • adaptive control hypothesis 16, 44, 80–81, 270–272
  • Betula study of bilingualism and dementia206
  • cognitive aging and 11–12
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and executive control systems 192–193
  • confounding variables and248
  • inhibition deficit theory 25–26
  • Inhibitory Control (IC) model 31–36, 38
  • inter-hemispheric inhibition28
  • language control and 100–105, 112–114, 122–127
  • language processing, overview22
  • mental flexibility terminology and79
  • overview 1, 267
  • word recognition and134

• Inoue, K.60

• Italian-English bilinguals, language production of60

• Italy, migrants studied in 247–248

• Ivanova, I. 3, 6

• Jaeggi, S. M.42

• James, William272

• Jang, S. 63

• Japanese migrants, study of245

• Jewish General Hospital (Montreal, Canada)226

• Jia, G. 62

• Johnson, H. A.259

• Johnson, N. F.3

• joint language activation.language control

• Josefsson, M. 233–234

• Kaine, Tim266

• Kavé, G. 244, 246, 253–254

• Keijzer, M. 5, 6

• Kentucky Nun Study187

• Kissinger, Henry 55, 61

• Klein, M.4

• Klein, R. M.280

• Koeth, J. T.179

• Kornblum, S.134

• Kousaie, S.2

• Kreuger,S.162

• Kroll, J. F. 30, 34, 62

• Kuh, D. 245–246

• L2 (second language learning)
  • L2 performance and length of residencelength of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
  • language processing 23, 29–36, 34
  • memory performance and229

• Laine, M.13

• Lambert, W. 1, 267, 276

• Language and Social Background Questionnaire (LSBQ) 166, 233

• language attrition.cognitive control; language processing

• language co-activation 29–36

• language control 99–130
  • Betula study of bilingualism and dementia206
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis and 270–272
  • cognitive aging and 13–16
  • cognitive control and 80–82, 86–87, 91 , 91–92, 94
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease 193, 194
  • confounding variables of254
  • digit span task for 109, 110–111, 122
  • domain-general executive control function and flanker task measurement 105, 109, 110, 120–121, 120n
  • letter fluency task measurement for 109–110, 112–115, 118–120, 120n
  • Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) for 106–107, 109, 111
  • overview 2, 3, 6, 99–103
  • semantic fluency task measurement for 109–110, 115–120, 120n
  • study data analysis 111–112
  • study overview 103–105
  • study participants 106–109
  • study results 122–127 ; see also executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)

• Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q)135

• Language History Questionnaire (Betula study)209

• language processing 21–53
  • connecting models of bilingual language processing to 36–41
  • first language (L1) attrition phenomena41
  • future research for 41–45
  • in healthy aging 24–29
  • language co-activation and 29–36, 34
  • length of residence and age at testing 65–69
  • length of residence and age of L2 onset 59–62, 62 – 65
  • overview 3, 6, 21–24
  • speed of, overview 2–3, 10, 24

• Larson-Hall, J.65t

• late bilinguals.cognitive control

• Lavin, T.162

• Lee, J.85

• leisure activities, as confounding variable 249–250

• length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance 55–75
  • age at time of testing and 65–69
  • age-length-onset problem and 56–59, 57 , 58
  • age of L2 onset and LOR effects 59–62, 62 – 65
  • bilingual advantage and 79–80
  • overview 55–56

• lexical competition/retrieval.auditory word recognition

• Linck, J. A. 62 , 179

• Liu, S. 62 , 63

• Ljungberg, J. K. 4, 6, 228–229, 233–234

• Loewenthal, K. 64

• London taxi drivers, study of4

• Long, M. 61, 62, 62

• longitudinal design method214see also Betula longitudinal cohort study

• Lothian Birth Cohort (1936) 189–190, 251–252, 254

• Luk, G. 3, 45, 80, 163t, 193, 213

• Lundell, F. F. 62, 65t

• Luo, L. 14, 164, 165

• MacKay, I. R. 60, 64 , 65t, 66–67

• Mann, V. A. 64

• Marian, V. 3, 6, 14–15, 31, 133, 136, 137, 228

• Marne, P.101

• Martín, M. C.37

• McAllister, R. 64 , 65t

• McClain, R.34

• McClelland, J. L. 64

• McDonald, J. L. 62

• McLaughlin, J.30

• Meador, D. 64

• measurement-burst designs235

• Mechelli, A. 213, 224

• medial temporal lobe (MTL) 191–192, 224, 226, 233

• medical perspective, on bilingualism 252–256

• memory
  • cognitive aging and 14–15
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease 191–192
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and brain reserve (BR) compared223
  • cognitive reserve (CR) and episodic memory function 227–231
  • language processing 22, 24, 26–28, 42, 43 ; see also Betula longitudinal cohort study; executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)

• Memory Clinic, Jewish General Hospital (Montreal, Canada)226

• mental flexibility79see also inhibition

• Meuter, R. F. I.30

• Mexican-born migrants, study of245

• Miller, B. 62

• Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) 210, 226, 233

• Misra, M. 32, 33

• Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting 84, 85, 91

• Monash University84

• monolingual populations, studies of.confounding variable(s)

• Montoya, R. I. 3, 6, 107–109

• Montreal (Canada), bilingualism in 188–189, 226, 267, 279–280

• Moreno, S. 14, 164

• Morton, J. B.280

• Moyer, A. 63

• Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) 106–107, 108 , 109, 111

• Munro, M. J. 64

• Münte, T. F.80

• Murillo, M. 3, 6

• musical experience, as confounding variable 4, 249–250

• neural models
  • cognitive control and81
  • language processing 28–34, 38–41, 43–45
  • white matter integrity and grey matter volume, overview3see also cognitive reserve (CR)

• neural reserve, defined223

• neurodegeneration.Alzheimer's disease; dementia

• Neville, H. J. 57, 63

• Nilsson, L.-G. 4, 6, 233–234

• Nizam's Institute for Medical Studies (NIMS) 249–250

• non-balanced (dominant) bilinguals
  • cognitive aging and 13–16
  • cognitive control and 81–82 ; see also language control

• non-linguistic intellectual activities, as confounding variables 249–250

• nonverbal working memory.executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)

• Northern Wales, migrants studied in 247–248

• Obler, L. K. 5, 6, 41

• Oller, J. W.86

• Olsen, R. K.45

• Osterhout, L.60

• Osthus, P.179

• "others," bilinguals as 256–259, 265–266

• Paap, K. R. 254–255, 258, 259, 280, 282, 284

• Parkvall, M.4

• Payne, B. R.27

• Peal, E. 1, 267, 276

• Perani, D.220

• Perquin, M.254

• Phillips, N. A. 2, 6

• physiological issues, as confounding variables 254–255

• picture identification trials
  • cognitive control and 85 , 86, 88, 89 , 93
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)162
  • language processing and 35–36
  • word recognition and 135, 136 , 136–139 ; see also Multilingual Naming Test (MINT)

• Piske, T. 61, 64 , 65t

• Poarch, G. J. 14, 165

• point of inflection (dementia) 231–233, 235–237

• Powell, D. K.3

• prejudice, toward bilinguals 256–259, 265–266

• Prescott, Y. 5, 6

• Principal Components Analysis (PCA), for LOR study 58–59

• process dissociation paradigm (PDP) 164, 165

• publication bias, in bilingualism 255–256

• reaction time (RT) analyses.auditory word recognition

• reading comprehension26

• Reading Span Task 85, 90 , 92, 93 , 95

• recall.executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM); memory

• recent probe task 164–165, 168, 169, 174–176, 175 – 177 , 178, 179, 183

• resting-state functional connectivity 193, 193

• retirement, bilingualism use after 207, 214

• retrieval, lexical.auditory word recognition

• Reuter-Lorenz, P. A.29

• reverse causality 250–252, 256, 286

• Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM)30

• Rossi, E. 3, 6, 34

• Runnqvist, E. 107–109

• Ryan, J.192

• Saer, D.257

• Saito, K. 63 , 64

• Sawi, O. M.259

• Schmid, M. S. 5, 6

• Schroeder, S. R. 3, 6, 14–15, 228

• Schwarzenegger, Arnold 55, 61

• Schweizer, T. 191–192, 224

• Scotland
  • Lothian Birth Cohort study in 189–190, 251–252, 254
  • Outer and Inner Hebrides study in254

• second language (L2) learning.L2

• Sensitive Period Hypothesis59

• Shipley-2 Institute of Living Scale Verbal and Blocks167

• Silverberg, N. B.67

• Simon task
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis 276–279
  • cognitive aging13
  • cognitive control85
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)163
  • language control101
  • language processing 2, 38

• Skinner, B. F. 272–273, 284

• socio-economic status, as confounding variable248

• Soveri, A.13

• Spain, migrants studied in 247–248

• speech production23

• Spiro, A., III 13, 41

• Spivey, M. J.31

• star counting task, for working memory study 165, 167, 169–172, 171 , 177, 177 , 179, 182

• Stern, Y. 231, 235

• Stevens, G.56

• Stewart, E.30

• Sterling, T. D.255

• Strauss, E. 235–236

• Streiff, V.86

• Stroop test
  • cognitive aging13
  • cognitive control85
  • language processing 2, 25
  • word recognition 133, 146–149, 148

• Sullivan, M. D. 5, 6

• Sunderman, G. 62

• Sweden, second language instruction in213

• Swedish longitudinal cohort, for dementia study.Betula longitudinal cohort study

• Swets, B.28

• Szmalec, A.81

• Tahta, S. 64

• Takagi, N. 64

• Tanner, D. 60, 63

• Tao, L.80

• target identification, word recognition 140–145, 141 – 145

• Thompson, I. 64

• Thompson, T.162

• tip-of-the tongue (TOT) experiences
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)162
  • language processing 24–25, 35, 40–41
  • length of residence and L2 performance67

• Titone, D. 220, 259, 281–282, 286

• Toronto (Canada) memory clinic study 14, 232, 254, 258, 279

• trait intelligence (Lothian Birth Cohort study) 189–190, 251–252, 254

• Tranel, D.220

• Transmission Deficit Model (TDM)25

• Trofimovich, P. 61, 63

• Trump, Donald265

• Trump, Ivanka266

• Trump, Melania266

• Tsukada, K. 63

• Tyler, L. K.27

• Umeå (Sweden), Betula study and 208, 209

• Ungerleider, C.162

• United States
  • bilingualism in 21–22
  • immigrants to 245–247

• University of California, San Diego (UCSD)106

• Utrecht University84

• Valian, V. 78, 81–82, 282

• Van Assche, E. 33, 35, 104, 104n1

• Vandelanotte, D.81

• Van den Noort, M. W. M. L.85

• verbal fluency
  • bilingual language control in older age 103, 105, 109
  • cognitive control and 88, 89
  • intelligence and cognitive reserve (CR) 189–190
  • language processing and 33–34, 36

• verbal working memory.executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)

• Verreyt, N. 81, 88, 92, 95

• video game players, study of4

• vocabulary size
  • cognitive aging and 11–12
  • language processing24

• von Bastian, C. C. 277–278

• Weber-Fox, C. M. 57, 63

• Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence135

• Weissberger, G. 107–109, 134

• within-language intrusion errors.language control

• Wodniecka, Z. 14, 164, 229

• Wolfram, W. 64

• Wood, M. 64

• word recognition.auditory word recognition

• Woumans, E.81

• Yamada, R. A. 62

• Yang, H. J.271

• Yeni-Komshian, G. H. 62 , 63

• Yong, E.275

• young adults
  • bilingual advantages hypothesis 277–278
  • executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM) 163, 164, 166–168
  • language processing speed 2–3
  • word recognition by 135–136, 136 ; see also auditory word recognition

• Zahodne, L. B. 234, 247

• Zhang, H. 42–43