bilingualism and late onset of dementia
4, 244, 249, 258
cognitive aging
11–14
cognitive control
5, 6, 85
cognitive reserve (CR)
188, 192, 232
dementia and bilingualism (Betula study)213
executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)
162–165, 176, 178, 179
length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
62
Toronto (Canada) memory clinic study
14, 232, 254, 258, 279
big data approach, to dementia research237
bilingual advantages hypothesis
265–295
cognitive control and
79–83
debates about
276–286
debates within linguistics field, generally
272–275
defined
268–272
overview
6, 265–268
Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus (BIA+)31
bilingualism
cognitive aging and
9–20
as cognitive reserve (CR) variable
190, 224
as cognitive training
42–43
as contributor to brain reserve (BR)
224–225
language proficiency of
135, 212–213, 229, 253, 270–271
prejudice toward
256–259, 265–266
prevalence of
21–22
publication bias in
255–256
second language usage after retirement
207, 214
; see also auditory word recognition; Betula longitudinal cohort study; bilingual advantages hypothesis; cognitive aging; cognitive control; cognitive reserve (CR); confounding variable(s); executive control (EC) processes; language control; language processing; length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
Bilingualism282
Birdsong, D.
60, 67
"The Bitter Fight Over the Benefits of Bilingualism" (Yong)275
Blumenfeld, H. K.
3, 6, 133, 136, 137
Blunkett, David257
Bobb, S.
3, 6
Bohn, O.-S.
63
Bosch, P.85
brain anatomy.cognitive aging; cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease; cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia; language processing; neural models
brain reserve (BR), cognitive reserve (CR) compared to
187, 220–227
"chicken or egg" question (reverse causality)
250–252, 256, 286
children
advantages of bilingualism for
1, 244
bilingual advantages hypothesis
276–277
bilingualism and mental flexibility1
as immigrants61see also length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
intelligence of, and cognitive reserve (CR)
189–190
language processing speed
2–3
Lothian Birth Cohort study
189–190, 251–252, 254
Chinese (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals
32–33, 42–43, 80, 194
Chomsky, Noam
253, 272–273, 284
Christie, J.4
Clinton, Hillary266
code switching.language control
cognitive aging
9–20
consistency of bilingual advantages in older adults278
effects of bilingualism on cognitive functions
11–12
executive functions (EF) and
12–17
LOR and effect on L2 attainment66
overview
1–2, 6, 9–11
"proximal" cognitive procedures
10, 15
word recognition and134see also auditory word recognition; Betula longitudinal cohort study; bilingual advantages hypothesis; cognitive control; cognitive reserve (CR); confounding variable(s); executive control (EC) processes; language control; language processing; length of residence (LOR) and L2 performance
cognitive control
77–98
bilingual advantage and
79–83
cognitive and language tasks used in study
84–87,
85
data analysis of study
87–88
overview
5, 6, 77–79
qualitative individual differences examined in study
91
, 91–93,
93
quantitative group comparison of study
88–90,
89
,
90
results of study
93–96
study participants
78, 82–84
word recognition and
131–135, 149, 151–154
; see also executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)
cognitive decline trajectory
231–237
"higher baseline" hypothesis and
233–235
point of inflection
231–233, 235–237
cognitive reserve (CR)
bilingual advantages hypothesis and
271–272
brain reserve (BR) compared to
187, 220–227
confounding variables of256see also cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease; cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia
cognitive reserve (CR) and Alzheimer's disease
185–203
aging and neurodegeneration
186–187
aging population statistics
185–186
bilingualism as CR variable190
childhood intelligence and verbal fluency factors
189–190
CR, defined
187–188
executive control pathways, protecting through experience196
executive control systems and
192–194,
193
,
195
future research in
197–198
immigration as factor in
188–189
memory systems in aging
191–192
cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia
219–242
APOE as dementia risk factor
207, 210–212,
211
, 214
cognitive reserve and brain reserve (BR) definitions
220–227
episodic memory function and
227–231
overview
3–6, 219–220
trajectory of cognitive decline
231–237
; see also cognitive reserve (CR)
Colzato, L. S.13
compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH) model29
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing135
confounding variable(s)
243–264
historical perspective about bilingualism
256–259, 265–266
immigration status as
245–250
medical perspective on
252–256
overview
4–6, 243–245
reverse causality and
250–252, 256, 286
Corsi block tests
14, 163
Cortex282
Costa, A.
12, 14, 101
Craik, F. I. M.
cognitive aging
1–2, 6, 14
cognitive reserve (CR)
188, 192
dementia and bilingualism (Betula study)207
executive control (EC) processes
162–165
Crane, P. K.212
Critical Period Hypothesis59
C-test
85
, 86, 88,
89
,
93
cultural factors, Betula study on206
D
Dalibar, C.259
Darrow, J.259
Davis, S. W.27
de Bruin, A.
81, 255
"decline" abilities
9–11
DeKeyser, R. M.
58, 65t
Della Sala, S.81
dementia
APOE as dementia risk factor
207, 210–212,
211
, 214
bilingualism and late onset of dementia
4, 244, 249, 258
cognitive control and78
criteria for
209–210
Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)247
non-Alzheimer's and cognitive reserve (CR)198
onset of, and immigration status
214, 279–280
rise of1
trajectory of cognitive decline
231–237
; see also cognitive reserve (CR); cognitive reserve (CR) and dementia; confounding variable(s)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association)209
Diaz, M.
3, 6
digit span test
cognitive aging10
cognitive control
84–85,
90
,
93
, 95
language control
103, 105,
107
language processing25
Dimensional Overlap Model134
domain-general executive control functions
defined
100–103
flanker task measurement for
105, 109, 110, 120–121, 120n
working memory performance and164see also executive control (EC) processes
Duncan, H. D.
6, 226, 234
Dutch (L1) - English (L2) bilinguals.cognitive control
Duyck, W.
33, 81, 104
E
Easterbook, P. J.255
education, as confounding variable249
Engle, R. W.12
English (L1) bilinguals, dementia and207
Etherington, Ashley180
executive control (EC) processes
Betula study of bilingualism and dementia206
bilingual advantages hypothesis and
268–272, 276–277
language processing
22–23, 25, 35, 37–40, 42–43, 45
; see also domain-general executive control functions; executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)
executive control (EC) processes in working memory (WM)
161–183