Chapter published in:
Bilingual Cognition and Language: The state of the science across its subfields
Edited by David Miller, Fatih Bayram, Jason Rothman and Ludovica Serratrice
[Studies in Bilingualism 54] 2018
► pp. 251–280

Chapter 12
Different situations, similar outcomes

Heritage grammars across the lifespan

| Penn State University
| University of Konstanz | UiT The Artic University of Norway
| Texas Tech University
The rise of scientific inquiry focusing on bilingualism over the past few decades has also borne witness to an increase in the study of individuals and communities who speak a native language that is not the sociolinguistically dominant language of the environment in which they grew up. While it is common practice to refer to these diverse groups and individuals as “heritage speakers”, it is unclear whether it is appropriate to classify all of them under the same terminology. In this chapter, we take a closer look at three different groups: (i) children, (ii) young adults, and (iii) elderly, moribund bilinguals who have all been referred to as heritage speakers in the literature. After exploring aspects of phonological, (morpho)syntactic, and semantic/pragmatic developments, we show that a great deal of symmetry exists between them, thus justifying the cohesive, overarching label of “heritage speakers” to all three sub-groups. Finally, we outline what this broader definition of heritage speakers means for long-standing debates in the literature, such as those that concern the acquisition, development, and maintenance of the heritage grammar across the lifespan.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Child HS development
    • 2.1Phonology
    • 2.2(Morpho-)syntax
    • 2.3Interfaces with semantics and pragmatics
    • 2.4Section summary
  • 3.Adult HL bilingualism
    • 3.1Phonology
    • 3.2(Morpho-)syntax
    • 3.3 Interfaces with semantics and pragmatics
    • 3.4Section summary
  • 4.Moribund HL bilingualism
    • 4.1Phonology
    • 4.2(Morpho)-syntax
    • 4.3The interface with semantics and pragmatics
    • 4.4Section summary
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 08 March 2018
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.54.12put
References

References

Alberse, S., & Hulk, A.
Forthcoming). Introduction to the special issue/Heritage language studies and early child bilingualism research: Understanding the connection. International Journal of Bilingualism.
Albirini, A., Benmamoun, E., & Saadah, E.
(2011) Grammatical features of Egyptian and Palestinian Arabic heritage speakers’ oral production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(02), 273–303. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Allen, B., & Salmons, J. C.
(2015) Heritage language obstruent phonetics and phonology: American Norwegian and Norwegian-American English. In J. B. Johannessen & J. C. Salmons (Eds.), Germanic heritage languages in North America: Acquisition, attrition, and change (pp. 97–116). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Almgren, M., & Barreña, A.
(2001) Bilingual acquisition and separation of linguistic codes: Ergativity in Basque versus accusativity in Spanish. In K. E. Nelson, A. Aksu-Koç, & C. E. Johnson (Eds.), Children’s language (pp. 27–48). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Alvord, S., & Rogers, B.
(2014) Miami-Cuban Spanish vowels in contact. Sociolinguistic Studies, 8(1), 139–170. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Amengual, M.
(2012) Interlingual influence in bilingual speech: Cognate status effect in a continuum of bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(3), 517–530. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Au, T. K. F., Knightly, L. M., Jun, S. A., & Oh, J. S.
(2002) Overhearing a language during childhood. Psychological science, 13(3), 238–243.Google Scholar
Bayram, F., Rothman, J., Iverson, M., Kupisch, T., Miller, D., Puig Mayenco, E., & Westergaard, M.
(2017) Differences in use without deficiencies in competence: Passives in the Turkish and German of Turkish heritage speakers in Germany. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1–21. Crossref
Bayram, F., Pascual y Cabo, D., & Rothman, J.
Forthcoming). Cross-generational attrition contributions to heritage speaker competence. In B. Köpke & M. S. Schmid Eds. The Cambridge handbook of attrition Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Berend, N., & Jedig, H.
(1991) Deutsche Mundarten in der Sowjetunion: Geschichte der Forschung und Bibliographie. Marburg: N. G. Elwert.Google Scholar
Bernardini, P.
(2003) Child and adult acquisition of word order. In N. Müller (Ed.), (In)vulnerable domains in multilingualism (pp. 41–84). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bernardini, P., & Schlyter, S.
(2004) Growing syntactic structure and code-mixing in the weaker language: The Ivy Hypothesis. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 7, 49–70. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Boas, H.
(2009) The life and death of Texas German (Publication of the American Dialect Society, 93). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Bullock, B. E.
(2009) Prosody in contact in French: A case study from a heritage variety in the USA. International Journal of Bilingualism, 13(2), 165–194. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, B. E., & Gerfen, C.
(2004) Phonological convergence in a contracting language variety. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 7(2), 95–104. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Burling, R.
(1959) Language development of a Garo and English speaking child. Word, 15, 45–68. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cuza, A.
(2013) Crosslinguistic influence at the syntax proper: Interrogative subject–verb inversion in heritage Spanish. International Journal of Bilingualism, 17(1), 1–26. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
de Bot, K., & Stoessel, S.
(2000) In search of yesterday’s words: Reactivating a long forgotten language. Applied Linguistics, 21, 364–384. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
De Houwer, A.
(1995) Bilingual language acquisition. In P. Fletcher & B. MacWhinney (Eds.), The handbook of child language (pp. 219–250). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
(2002) How different are monolingual and bilingual acquisition? Ilha do Desterro [ A Journal of English Language, Literatures in English and Cultural Studies ], 43, 127–148. Available at https://​periodicos​.ufsc​.br​/index​.php​/desterro​/article​/view​/10203​/9433
Déhe, N.
Forthcoming). The intonation of polar questions in North American (‘heritage’) Icelandic. Journal of Germanic Linguistics.
Dorian, N.
(1977) The problem of the semi-speaker in language death. IJSL, 12, 23–32.Google Scholar
(1981) Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Egger, E., Hulk, A., & Tsimpli, I.
Forthcoming). Crosslinguistic influence in the discovery of gender: The case of Greek-Dutch bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.
Ezeizabarrena, M. J.
(2002) Root infinitives in two pro-drop languages. In A. Pérez-Leroux, & J. Liceras (Eds.), The acquisition of Spanish syntax. The L1/l2 connection (pp. 35–65). Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Flores, C., & Barbosa, P.
(2014) When reduced input leads to delayed acquisition: A study on the acquisition of clitic placement by Portuguese heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(3), 304–325. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Flores, C., & Rato, A.
(2016) Global accent in the Portuguese speech of heritage returnees. Heritage Language Journal, 13(2), 161–183.Google Scholar
Gawlitzek-Maiwald, I., & Tracy, R.
(1996) Bilingual bootstrapping. Linguistics, 34, 901–926. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Geiger, S., & Salmons, J. C.
(2006) Reconstructing variation at shallow time depths: The historical phonetics of 19th century German dialects in the U.S. In T. Cravens (Ed.), Variation and reconstruction (pp. 37–58). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F.
(1989) Early bilingual development: One language or two? Journal of Child Language, 16, 161–79. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Goral, M.
(2014) Bilingualism, language, and aging. In J. Altarriba & L. Isurin (Eds.), Memory, language and bilingualism: Theoretical and applied approaches (pp. 188–210). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goral, M., Spiro III, A., Albert, M. L., Obler, L. K., & Connor, L. T.
(2007) Change in lexical-retrieval skills in adulthood. The Mental Lexicon, 2, 215–238. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Granfeldt, J.
(2000) The acquisition of the determiner phrase in bilingual and second language French. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3(3), 263–280. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Forthcoming). The development of gender in simultaneous and successive bilingual acquisition of French – Evidence for AOA and input effects. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.
Hansegård, N. .
(1968) Tvåspråkighet eller halvspråkighet? Stockholm: Aldus/Bonnier.Google Scholar
Henriksen, N.
(2015) Acoustic analysis of the rhotic contrast in Chicagoland Spanish: An intergenerational study. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 5(3), 285–321. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hopp, H., & Putnam, M. T.
(2015) Syntactic restructuring in heritage grammars: Word order variation in Moundridge Schweitzer German. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 5(2), 180–214. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hulk, A.
(2004) The acquisition of the French DP in a bilingual context. In P. Prévost & J. Paradis (Eds.), The acquisition of French in different contexts. Focus on functional categories (pp. 243–274). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hulk, A., & Müller, N.
(2000) Cross-linguistic influence at the interface between syntax and pragmatics. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3, 227–244. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Hulk, A., & van der Linden, E.
(2010) How vulnerable is gender? In P. Guijarro-Fuentes & L. Domínguez (Eds.), New directions in language acquisition: Romance languages in the generative perspective (pp. 107–132). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Ingram, D.
(1981) Some characteristics of delayed phonological systems. In H. Winitz (Ed.), Native language and foreign language acquisition (pp. 138–143). New York, NY: New York Academy of Science.Google Scholar
Ivanova, I., Murillo, M., Montoya, R. I., & Gollan, T. H.
(2016) Does bilingual language control decline in older age? Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1/2), 86–118. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ivanova-Sullivan, T.
(2014) Interpretation of anaphoric subject pronouns in heritage Russian. In R. T. Miller, K. I. Martin, C. M. Eddington, A. Henery, N. Marcos Miguel, A. M. Tseng, A. Tuninetti, & D. Walter (Eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 2012 Second Language Research Forum (pp. 145–154). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Johannessen, J. B., & Salmons, J. C.
(Eds.) (2015) Germanic heritage languages in North America: Acquisition, attrition, and change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, D. C.
(1994) The Volga-German dialect of Schoenchen, Kansas. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Kansas.Google Scholar
Joo, H.-A., Schwarz, L., & Page, B. R.
to appear). Non-convergence and divergence in bilingual phonological and phonetic systems: Low back vowels in Moundridge Schweitzer German and English. Journal of Language Contact.
Keel, W. D.
(2015) Noun phrase case shift in Volga German varieties on the Great Plains of Kansas. In B. R. Page, & M. T. Putnam (Eds.), Moribund Germanic heritage languages in North America: Theoretical perspectives and empirical findings (pp. 133–152). Leiden: Brill. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kehoe, M.
(2002) Developing vowel systems as a window to bilingual phonology. International Journal of Bilingualism, 6, 315–334. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Forthcoming). The development of rhotics: A comparison of monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.
Kehoe, M., Lleó, C., & Rakow, M.
(2004) Voice onset time in bilingual German-Spanish children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 7(1), 71–88. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Keijzer, M. C. J., & Schmid, M. S.
(2016) Individual differences in cognitive control advantages of late Dutch-English bilinguals. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1/2), 64–85. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kim, J. H., Montrul, S., & J. Yoon
(2009) Binding interpretation of anaphors in Korean heritage bilingual speakers. Language Acquisition, 16, 3–35. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kupisch, T.
(2007) Determiners in bilingual German-Italian children: What they tell us about the relation between language influence and language dominance. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 57–78. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2012) Generic subjects in the Italian of early German-Italian bilinguals and German learners of Italian as a second language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(4), 736–756. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2013) A new term for a better distinction? A view from the higher end of the proficiency. Theoretical Linguistics, 39, 203–214. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kupisch, T., & Lleó, C.
(2017) Voice Onset Time in German-Italian simultaneous bilinguals: Evidence on crosslanguage influence and markedness. In M. Yavas, M. Kehoe, & W. Cardono (Eds.), Romance-Germanic Bilingual Phonology (pp. 79–98). Leeds: Equinox.Google Scholar
Kupisch, T., & Pierantozzi, C.
(2010) Interpreting definite plural subjects: A comparison of German and Italian monolingual and bilingual children. In K. Franich, K. M. Iserman, & L. Keil (Eds.), 34th Boston University Conference on Language and Development (pp. 245–254), Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Kupisch, T., Barton, D., Hailer, K., Lein, T., Stangen, I., & van de Weijer, J.
(2014a) Foreign accent in adult simultaneous bilinguals? Heritage Language Journal 11(2), 123–150.Google Scholar
Kupisch, T., Barton, D., Lein, T., Schröder, J., Stangen, I., & Stöhr, A.
(2014b) Acquisition outcomes across domain in adult heritage speakers of French. Journal of French Language Studies, 24(3), 347–376. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kupisch, T., Belikova, A., Özçelik, Ö., Stangen, I., & White, L.
(2017) Restrictions on complete acquisition in heritage speakers: The definiteness effect in German-Turkish bilinguals. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 17(1), 1–32. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Kupisch, T., Müller, N., & Cantone, K.
(2002) Gender in monolingual and bilingual first language acquisition: Comparing Italian and French. Lingue e Linguaggio, 1, 107–149.Google Scholar
Kupisch, T., & Rothman, J.
(2016) Terminology matters!: Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Larsson, I., & Johannesen, J. B.
(2015) Incomplete acquisition and verb placement in heritage Scandinavian. In B. R. Page & M. T. Putnam (Eds.), Moribund Germanic heritage languages in North America: Theoretical perspectives and empirical findings (pp. 153–189). Leiden: Brill. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Leal, T., J. Rothman, & R. Slabakova
(2014) A rare structure at the syntax-discourse interface: heritage and Spanish-dominant native speakers weigh in. Language Acquisition, 21(4), 411–429. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lein, T., Kupisch, T., & van de Weijer, J.
(2017) Voice onset time and global foreign accent in German-French simultaneous bilinguals during adulthood. International Journal of Bilingualism, 20(6), 132–149. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Leopold, W.
(1953) Patterning in children’s language learning. Language Learning, 5, 1–14. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Forthcoming). Aspects of the phonology of Spanish as a heritage language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.
Lleó, C., Kuchenbrandt I., Kehoe, M., & Trujillo, C.
(2003) Syllable final consonants in Spanish and German monolingual and bilingual acquisition. In N. Müller (Ed.), (In)vulnerable domains in multilingualism (pp. 191–220). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Lohndal, T., & Westergaard, M.
(2016) Grammatical gender in American Heritage Norwegian language: Stability or attrition? Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 344. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Meisel, J.
(1986) Word order and case marking in early child language. Evidence from simultaneous acquisition of two first languages: French and German. Linguistics, 24(1), 123–184. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1989) Early differentiation of languages in bilingual children. In K. Hyltenstam, & L. Obler (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Aspects of acquisition, maturity, and loss. (pp. 13–40). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1990) Word order and case marking in early child language. Evidence from the simultaneous acquisition of two first languages. In J. Meisel (Ed.), Two first languages: Early grammatical development in bilingual children (pp. 5–22). Dordrecht: Foris. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(1994) Bilingual first language acquisition: French and German grammatical development. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2004) The bilingual child. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds.), The handbook of bilingualism (pp. 91–112). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
(2007) On autonomous syntactic development in multiple first language acquisition. In H. Caunt-Nulton, S. Kulatilake, & I.-H. Woo (Eds.), Proceedings of the 31st Boston University Conference on language development (pp. 26–45). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
(2014) Heritage language learners: Incomplete acquisition of grammar in early childhood. In A. Enrique-Arias, M. J. Gutiérrez, A. Landa, & F. Ocampo (Eds.), Perspectives in the study of Spanish language variation (pp. 429–454). Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S.
(2002) Competence and performance differences between monolinguals and 2nd generation bilinguals in the Tense/Aspect domain. In J. F. Lee, K. Geeslin, & J. C. Clements (Eds.), Structure, meaning, and acquisition in Spanish: Papers from the 4th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (pp. 93–114). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla.Google Scholar
(2004) Subject and object expression in Spanish heritage speakers: A case of morphosyntactic convergence. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 7(2), 125–142. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2008) Incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: Re-examining the age factor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2016) The acquisition of heritage languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S., & Ionin, T.
(2010) Transfer effects in the interpretation of definite articles by Spanish heritage speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(4), 449–473. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S., & Sánchez-Walker, N.
(2013) Differential object marking in child and adult Spanish heritage speakers. Language Acquisition, 20(2), 109–132. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S., Foote, R., & Perpiñan, S.
(2008) Gender agreement in adult second language learners and Spanish heritage speakers: The effects of age and context of acquisition. Language Learning, 58(3), 503–553. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S., Bhatt, R., & Girju, R.
(2015) Differential object marking in Spanish, Hindi, and Romanian as heritage languages. Language, 91(3), 564–610. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Müller, N.
(1993) Komplexe Sätze: Der Erwerb von COMP und von Wortstellungsmustern bei bilingualen Kindern (französisch/deutsch). Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar
Müller, N., & Hulk, A.
(2001) Crosslinguistic influence in bilingual language acquisition: Italian and French as recipient languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 4, 1–21. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Nicoladis, E.
(2006) Cross-linguistic transfer in adjective-noun strings by preschool bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9, 15–32. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Oh, J., Jun, S.-A., Knightly, L., & Au, T.
(2003) Holding on to childhood language memory. Cognition, 86, B53–B64. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Page, B. R., & Putnam, M. T.
(Eds.) (2015) Moribund Germanic heritage languages in North America: Theoretical perspectives and empirical findings. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Paradis, J., & Genesee, F.
(1996) Syntactic acquisition in bilingual children: Autonomous or interdependent? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 1–25. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Paradis, J., & Navarro, S.
(2003) Subject realization and crosslinguistic interference in the bilingual acquisition of Spanish and English: what is the role of input? Journal of Child Language, 30, 371–393. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pascual y Cabo, D.
(2013) Agreement reflexes of emerging optionality in heritage speaker Spanish. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Florida.Google Scholar
Pascual y Cabo, D., & Gómez Soler, I.
(2015) Preposition stranding in Spanish as a heritage language. Heritage Language Journal, 12(2), 186–209.Google Scholar
Pascual y Cabo, D., & Rothman, J.
(2012) The (il)logical problem of heritage speaker bilingualism and incomplete acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 33(4), 1–7.Google Scholar
Pérez-Leroux, A., Pirvulescu, M., Roberge, I.
(2009) Bilingualism as a window into the language faculty: The acquisition of objects in French-speaking children in bilingual and monolingual contexts. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(1), 1–16. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Pires, A., & Rothman, J.
(2009) Disentangling sources of incomplete acquisition: An explanation for competence divergence across heritage grammars. International Journal of Bilingualism, 13(2), 211–238. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Platzack, C.
(2001) The vulnerable C-domain. Brain and Language, 77, 364–377. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Polinsky, M.
(2006) Incomplete acquisition: American Russian. Journal of Slavic Linguistics, 14(2), 191–262.Google Scholar
(2011) Reanalysis in adult heritage language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(2), 305–328. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Puig-Mayenco, E., Miller, D., & Rothman, J.
(2016) Language dominance affects bilingual competence and processing: Evidence from a bi-directional study from Catalan-Spanish bilinguals. Paper presented at: BUCLD, 41st Boston University Conference on Language Development, Boston, MA.
Putnam, M. T.
(Ed.) (2011) Studies on German-language islands. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, M. T., & Arnbjörnsdóttir, B.
(2015) Minimizing (interface) domains: The loss of long-distance binding in North American Icelandic. In B. R. Page & M. T. Putnam (Eds.), Researching moribund Germanic heritage languages: Theoretical challenges and empirical findings (pp. 203–223). Leiden: Brill. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, M. T., & Salmons, J. C.
(2013) Losing their (passive) voice: Syntactic neutralization in heritage German. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 3(2), 233–252. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, M., & Sánchez, L.
(2013) What’s so incomplete about incomplete acquisition: A prolegomenon to modeling heritage language grammars. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 3(4), 478–508. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rao, R.
(2014) On the status of the phoneme /b/ in heritage speakers of Spanish. Sintagma, 26, 37–54.Google Scholar
Rinke, E., & Flores, C.
(2014) Morphosyntactic knowledge of clitics by Portuguese heritage bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(4), 681–699. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rodina, Y., & Westergaard, M.
(2017) Grammatical gender in bilingual Norwegian–Russian acquisition: The role of input and transparency. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(1), 197–214. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Ronquest, R.
(2012) An acoustic analysis of heritage Spanish vowels. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Indiana University.Google Scholar
(2013) An acoustic examination of unstressed vowel reduction in heritage Spanish. In C. Howe, S. E. Blackwell, & M. Lubbers Quesada (Eds.), Selected proceedings of the 15th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (pp. 157–171). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Rossi, E., & Diaz, M.
(2016) How aging and bilingualism influence language processing. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1/2), 9–42. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rothman, J.
(2007) Heritage speaker competence differences, language change and input type: Inflected infinitives in heritage Brazilian Portuguese. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11, 359–389. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2009) Understanding the nature and outcomes of early bilingualism: Romance languages as heritage languages. International Journal of Bilingualism, 13, 155–163. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Rothman, J., & Treffers-Daller, J.
(2014) A prolegomenon to the construction of the native speaker: Heritage speaker bilinguals are natives too! Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 93–98. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Santos, A. L., & Flores, C.
(2016) Comparing heritage speakers and late L2-learners of European Portuguese: Verb movement, VP ellipsis and adverb placement. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(3), 308–340. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schlyter, S.
(1993) The weaker language in bilingual Swedish–French children. In K. Hyltenstam, & A. Viberg (Eds.), Progression and regression in language: Sociocultural, neuropsychological and linguistic perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schmid, M. S.
(2011) Language attrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, M. S., & Köpke, B.
(2007) Bilingualism and attrition. In B. Köpke, M. S. Schmid, M. C. J. Keijzer, & S. Dostert (Eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 1–7). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Seliger, H. W., & Vago, R. M.
(1991) The study of first language attrition: An overview. In H. W. Seliger & R. M. Vago, First language attrition (pp. 3–15). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Serratrice, L.
(2007) Referential cohesion in the narratives of bilingual English-Italian children and monolingual peers. Journal of Pragmatics, 29(6), 1058–1087. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2013) Crosslinguistic influence in bilingual development. Determinants and mechamisms. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 3(1), 3–25. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Serratrice, L., Sorace, A., Filiaci, F., & Baldo, M.
(2009) Bilingual children’s sensitivity to specificity and genericity: Evidence from metalinguistic awareness. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12, 239–257. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Silva-Corvalán, C.
(1994) Language contact and change: Spanish in Los Angeles. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sorace, A.
(2004) Native language attrition and developmental instability at the syntax-discourse interface: Data, interpretations, and methods. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 7, 143–145. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
(2011) Pinning down the concept of “interface” in bilingualism. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 1(1), 1–33. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Sorace, A., & Serratrice, L.
(2009) Internal and external interfaces in bilingual language development: Beyond structural overlap. International Journal of Bilingualism, 13, 1–16. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Stangen, I., Kupisch, T., Proietti Ergün, A. L., & Zielke, M.
(2015) Foreign accent in heritage speakers of Turkish in Germany. In H. Peukert (Ed.), Transfer effects in multilingual language development (pp. 87–108). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Vihman, M.
(2015) Prosodic structures and templates in bilingual phonological development. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(1), 1–20.Google Scholar
Villegas Erce, Á.
(2014) The role of L2 English immersion in the processing of L1 Spanish sentence complement/relative clause ambiguities. Unpublished PhD dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Virtanen, R.
(1979) The Finnish language in America. Scandinavian Studies, 51(2), 146–161.Google Scholar
Vogel, I.
(1975) One system or two? An analysis of a two-year-old Romanian-English bilingual’s phonology. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development, 9, 43–62.Google Scholar
Volterra, V., & Taeschner, T.
(1978) The acquisition and development of language by bilingual children. Journal of Child Language, 5, 311–326. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Weilbacher, H.
(2011) Texas German discourse pragmatics: A preliminary study of the English-origin discourse markers of course, see, and now . In M. T. Putnam (Ed.), Studies on German-language islands (pp. 455–474). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Yager, L., Hellmold, N., Joo, H.-A., Rossi, E., Stafford, C., & Salmons, J.
(2015) New structural patterns in moribund grammar: Case marking in heritage German. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 86–94. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Zapata, G., Sánchez, L. & Toribio, A. J.
(2005) Contact and contracting Spanish. International Journal of Bilingualism, 9, 377–395. CrossrefGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 18 other publications

No author info given
2019.  In Heritage Languages [Studies in Bilingualism, 58], Crossref logo
Bayram, Fatih, Maki Kubota, Alicia Luque, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2021. You Can’t Fix What Is Not Broken: Contextualizing the Imbalance of Perceptions About Heritage Language Bilingualism. Frontiers in Education 6 Crossref logo
Bayram, Fatih, David Miller, Jason Rothman & Ludovica Serratrice
2018.  In Bilingual Cognition and Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 54], ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Bousquette, Joshua
2020. From Bidialectal to Bilingual. American Speech 95:4 ► pp. 485 ff. Crossref logo
Bousquette, Joshua & Michael T. Putnam
2020. Redefining Language Death: Evidence From Moribund Grammars. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 188 ff. Crossref logo
D'Alessandro, Roberta, David Natvig & Michael T. Putnam
2021. Addressing Challenges in Formal Research on Moribund Heritage Languages: A Path Forward. Frontiers in Psychology 12 Crossref logo
Dehé, Nicole & Tanja Kupisch
2021. Prepositional phrases and case in North American (heritage) Icelandic. Nordic Journal of Linguistics ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Dávila-Montes, José & Lyon Rathbun
2020. La Pera stories: cognitive and cultural alignment of narrative production by bilinguals in the U.S. – Mexican borderlands. Language and Intercultural Communication 20:3 ► pp. 240 ff. Crossref logo
Flores, Cristina
2020. Attrition and Reactivation of a Childhood Language: The Case of Returnee Heritage Speakers. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 85 ff. Crossref logo
Flores, Cristina & Esther Rinke
2020. The relevance of language-internal variation in predicting heritage language grammars. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 23:1 ► pp. 25 ff. Crossref logo
Lohndal, Terje, Jason Rothman, Tanja Kupisch & Marit Westergaard
2019. Heritage language acquisition: What it reveals and why it is important for formal linguistic theories. Language and Linguistics Compass 13:12 Crossref logo
Marian, Viorica & Sayuri Hayakawa
2021. Measuring bilingualism: The quest for a “bilingualism quotient”. Applied Psycholinguistics 42:2 ► pp. 527 ff. Crossref logo
Natvig, David
2021. Variation and stability of American Norwegian /r/ in contact. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism Crossref logo
Petersen, Jan Heegård, Gert Foget Hansen, Jacob Thøgersen & Karoline Kühl
2021. Linguistic Proficiency: A Quantitative Approach to Immigrant and Heritage Speakers of Danish . Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 17:2 ► pp. 465 ff. Crossref logo
Puig-Mayenco, Eloi, Ian Cunnings, Fatih Bayram, David Miller, Susagna Tubau & Jason Rothman
2018. Language Dominance Affects Bilingual Performance and Processing Outcomes in Adulthood. Frontiers in Psychology 9 Crossref logo
Sippola, Eeva
2021. Spanish contact influence in a Finnish heritage community in Misiones, Argentina. Nordic Journal of Linguistics ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Sopata, Aldona & Kamil Długosz
2021. The effects of language input on word order in German as a heritage and majority language. Language Acquisition ► pp. 1 ff. Crossref logo
Uygun, Serkan & Harald Clahsen
2021. Morphological processing in heritage speakers: A masked priming study on the Turkish aorist. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 24:3 ► pp. 415 ff. Crossref logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 31 march 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.