Cover not available
Part of
Multifaceted Multilingualism
Edited by Kleanthes K. Grohmann
[Studies in Bilingualism 66] 2024
► pp. 204–231

Chapter 8
Bilingualism matters

A study of children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder

| Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
| Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
| University of Cambridge
| University of Fribourg | University of Geneva

This study investigated bilingualism effects on language, executive functions and Theory of Mind (ToM) in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). The performance of these clinical groups was compared to that of children with typical development (TD). All groups were matched on socio-economic status, IQ and chronological age (oscillating around 11 years), and were composed of a total of one hundred and twenty-two participants. Overall, children with ASD and DLD showed more difficulty than their TD peers on language tasks, and monolingual children with ASD struggled more than other groups on both EF and ToM tasks. Bilingualism boosts in executive functions and ToM emerged in bilingual children with ASD compared to their monolingual peers with ASD, however these bilingual advantages were not observed in children with DLD. More specifically, bilinguals with ASD performed better than their monolingual peers at inhibiting distracting non-verbal stimuli and at attributing false beliefs. Bilingual autistic children’s performance in the ToM task related to IQ, sentence comprehension and (marginally) to socio-economic status. Taken together, these findings highlight the selective cognitive benefits of bilingualism, which may vary depending on the children’s condition, on their individual cognitive and linguistic abilities, as well as on their socio-economic backgrounds. This work also shows that bilingualism has no negative effects on children’s development, including those with ASD or DLD.

Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
    • 1.1Language and bilingualism in TD children
    • 1.2Cognition and bilingualism in TD children
    • 1.3Bilingualism in children with ASD and DLD
  • 2.Method
    • 2.1Participants
    • 2.2General procedure
    • 2.3Materials and procedure
    • 2.4Analysis plan
  • 3.Results
    • 3.1Language ability screening tasks
    • 3.2EF task
    • 3.3ToM task
  • 4.Discussion
  • Notes
  • References
Published online: 4 April 2024
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.66.08per
References
American Psychiatric Association
(2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
(2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5™ (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
(2021) Demographic profile of ASHA members providing bilingual services year-end 2020. [URL]
Andreou, M.
(2015) The effects of bilingualism on verbal and non verbal cognition: The micro- and macro-structure of narratives in the weak and the dominant language of the bilingual child (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Retrieved 8 November 2023 from [URL]Google Scholar
Andreou, M., Tsimpli, I. M., Durrleman, S., & Peristeri, E.
(2020) Theory of mind, executive functions, and syntax in bilingual children with autism spectrum disorder. Languages, 5(4), 67. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Antoniou, M.
(2019) The advantages of bilingualism debate. Annual Review of Linguistics, 5(1), 395–415. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Antoniou, K., Grohmann, K. K., Kambanaros, M., & Katsos, N.
(2016) The effect of childhood bilectalism and multilingualism on executive control. Cognition, 149, 18–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., Kurzius-Spencer, M., Zahorodny, W., Robinson Rosenberg, C., White, T., Durkin, M. S., Imm, P., Nikolaou, L., Yeargin-Allsopp, M., Lee, L. C., Harrington, R., Lopez, M., Fitzgerald, R. T., Hewitt, A., … & Dowling, N. F.
(2018) Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years – Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1–23. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baldimtsi, E., Nicolopoulou, A., & Tsimpli, I. M.
(2021) Cognitive and affective aspects of theory of mind in Greek-speaking children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 1142–1156. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U.
(1985) Does the autistic child have a ‘theory of mind’? Cognition, 21, 37–46. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Beauchamp, M. L., & MacLeod, A. A.
(2017) Bilingualism in children with autism spectrum disorder: Making evidence-based recommendations. Canadian Psychology, 58(3), 250. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Beauchamp, M. L. H., Rezzonico, S., & MacLeod, A. A. N.
(2020) Bilingualism in school-aged children with ASD: A pilot study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50, 4433–4448. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bedore, L. M., Peña, E. D., Garcia, M., & Cortez, C.
(2005) Conceptual versus monolingual scoring: When does it make a difference? Speech, Language, Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 188–200. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ben-Zeev, S.
(1977) The influence of bilingualism on cognitive strategy and cognitive development. Child Development, 48, 1009–1018. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E.
(1986) Factors in the growth of linguistic awareness. Child Development, 57(2), 498–510. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1988) Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 560–567. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2001) Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2009) Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12, 3–11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Barac, R.
(2012) Emerging bilingualism: Dissociating advantages for metalinguistic awareness and executive control. Cognition, 122(1), 67–73. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Luk, G.
(2012) Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(2), 397–401. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Luk, G., Peets, K. F., & Yang, S.
(2010) Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13, 525–531. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Majumder, S.
(1998) The relationship between bilingualism and the development of cognitive processes in problem solving. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19(1), 69–85. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Martin, M. M., & Viswanathan, M.
(2005) Bilingualism across the lifespan: The rise and fall of inhibitory control. International Journal of Bilingualism, 9(1), 103–119. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bloom, L., & Lahey, M.
(1978) Language development and language disorders. Wiley.Google Scholar
Bloom, P., & German, T. P.
(2000) Two reasons to abandon the false belief task as a test of theory of mind. Cognition, 77, B25–B31. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Boerma, T., & Blom, E.
(2020) Effects of developmental language disorder and bilingualism on children’s executive functioning: A longitudinal study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 107, 103782. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N.
(2008) Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Developmental Science, 11(2), 282–298. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chan, K. T.
(2004) Chinese – English bilinguals’ theory-of-mind development (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Colle, L., Baron-Cohen, S., & Hill, J.
(2007) Do children with autism have a theory of mind? A non-verbal test of autism vs. specific language impairment. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(4), 716–723. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Creemers, A., & Schaeffer, J. C.
(2016) Specific language impairment and high functioning autism: Evidence for distinct etiologies and for modularity of grammar and pragmatics. In L. Perkins, R. Dudley, J. Gerard, & K. Hitczenko (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition North America (GALANA 2015) (pp. 1–12). Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Cromdal, J.
(1999) Childhood bilingualism and metalinguistic skills: Analysis and control in young Swedish – English bilinguals. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20(1), 1–20. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dai, Y. G., Burke, J. D., Naigles, L., Eigsti, I. M., & Fein, D. A.
(2018) Language abilities in monolingual- and bilingual-exposed children with Autism or other developmental disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 55, 38–49. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Houwer, A., Bornstein, M. H., & Putnick, D. L.
(2014) A bilingual-monolingual comparison of young Children’s vocabulary size: Evidence from comprehension and production. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35, 1189–1211. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Diaz, V., & Farrar, M. J.
(2018a) The missing explanation of the false-belief advantage in bilingual children: A longitudinal study. Developmental Science, 21(4), e12594. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2018b) Do bilingual and monolingual preschoolers acquire false belief understanding similarly? The role of executive functioning and language. First Language, 38, 382–398. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Doherty, M. J.
(2000) Children’s understanding of homonymy: Metalinguistic awareness and false belief. Journal of Child Language, 27, 367–392. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Doherty, M., & Perner, J.
(1998) Metalinguistic awareness and theory of mind: Just two words for the same thing? Cognitive Development, 13, 279–305. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Drysdale, H., van der Meer, L., & Kagohara, D.
(2015) Children with autism spectrum disorder from bilingual families: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2(1), 26–38. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Durrleman, S., & Franck, J.
(2015) Exploring links between language and cognition in autism spectrum disorders: Complement sentences, false belief, and executive functioning. Journal of Communication Disorders, 54, 15–31. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Durrleman, S., Burnel, M., Thommen, E., Foudon, N., Sonié, S., Reboul, A., & Fourneret, P.
(2016) The language cognition interface in ASD: Complement sentences and false belief reasoning. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 21, 109–120. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Durrleman, S., Burnel, M., & Reboul, A.
(2017) Theory of mind in SLI revisited:Links with syntax, comparisons with ASD. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 52(6), 816–830. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Durrleman, S., Hinzen, W., & Franck, J.
(2018) False belief and relative clauses in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Communication Disorders, 74, 35–44. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fan, S. P., Liberman, Z., Keysar, B., & Kinzler, K. D.
(2015) The exposure advantage: Early exposure to a multilingual environment promotes effective communication. Psychological Science, 26(7), 1090–1097. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Forgeot d’Arc, B., & Ramus, F.
(2010) Belief attribution despite verbal interference. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(5), 975–990. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F., Paradis, J., & Crago, M.
(2004) Dual language development and disorders: A handbook on bilingualism and second language learning. Paul Brookes.Google Scholar
Georgas, J., Paraskevopoulos, I.N., Besevegis, E., Giannitsas, N., & Mylonas, K.
(1997) Ελληνικό WISC-III: Wechsler κλίμακες νοημοσύ νης για παιδιά [GreekWISC-III: Wechsler intelligence scale for children]. Ellinika Grammata.Google Scholar
Goetz, P. J.
(2003) The effects of bilingualism on theory of mind development. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6, 1–15. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez-Barrero, A. M., & Nadig, A. S.
(2017) Can bilingualism mitigate set-shifting difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders? Child Development, 90(4), 1043–1060. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Graham, W. A., Brooks, J., Graham, A., & Ostenfeld, A.
(2000) From synonym to homonym: Exploring the role of meta-representation in language understanding. Developmental Science, 3, 428–441. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Grundy, J. G., & Timmer, K.
(2017) Bilingualism and working memory capacity: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Second Language Research, 33(3), 325–40. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hambly, C., & Fombonne, E.
(2012) The impact of bilingual environments on language development in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(7), 1342–1352. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hampton, S., Rabagliati, H., Sorace, A., & Fletcher-Watson, S.
(2017) Autism and bilingualism: A qualitative interview study of parents’ perspectives and experiences. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 60, 435–446. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hoff, E., Core, C., Place, S., Rumiche, R., Señor, M., & Parra, M.
(2012) Dual language exposure and early bilingual development. Journal of Child Language, 39, 1–27. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hoff, E., Rumiche, R., Burridge, A., Ribot, K. M., & Welsh, S. N.
(2014) Expressive vocabulary development in children from bilingual and monolingual homes: A longitudinal study from two to four years. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 433–444. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kambanaros, M., Grohmann, K. K., Michaelides, M., & Theodorou, E.
(2013) Comparing multilingual children with SLI to their bilectal peers: Evidence from object and action picture naming. International Journal of Multilingualism, 10, 60–81. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kay-Raining Bird, E., Lamond, E., & Holden, J.
(2012) Survey of bilingualism in autism spectrum disorders. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 47(1), 52–64. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kay-Raining Bird, E., Genesee, F., & Verhoeven, L.
(2016) Bilingualism in children with developmental disorders: A narrative review. Journal of Communication Disorders, 63, 1–14. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kovács, Á. M.
(2009) Early bilingualism enhances mechanisms of false-belief reasoning. Developmental Science, 12, 48–54. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Leonard, L. B.
(1998) Children with specific language impairment. The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lind, S. E., & Bowler, D. M.
(2009) Language and theory of mind in autism spectrum disorder: The relationship between complement syntax and false belief task performance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(6), 929–937. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Loukusa, S., Mäkinen, L., Kuusikko-Gauffin, S., Ebeling, H., & Moilanen, I.
(2014) Theory of mind and emotion recognition skills in children with specific language impairment, autism spectrum disorder and typical development: Group differences and connection to knowledge of grammatical morphology, word-finding abilities and verbal working memory. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49(4), 498–507. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lund, E. M., Kohlmeier, T. L., & Durán, L. K.
(2017) Comparative language development in bilingual and monolingual children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Early Intervention, 39(2), 106–124. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Meir N., & Novogrodsky R.
(2020) Syntactic abilities and verbal memory in monolingual and bilingual children with high functioning autism (HFA). First Language, 40(4), 341–366. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miller, C. A.
(2006) Developmental relationships between language and theory of mind. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15(2), 142–154. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Milligan, K., Astington, J. W., & Dack, L. A.
(2007) Language and theory of mind: Meta-analysis of the relation between language ability and false-belief understanding. Child Development, 78, 622–646. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E.
(2013) Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114(2), 187–202. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Neill, W. T., Valdes, L. A., Terry, K. M., & Gorfein, D. S.
(1992) Persistence of negative priming: II. Evidence for episodic trace retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning and Memory, 18, 993–1000. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nguyen, T. K., & Astington, J. W.
(2014) Reassessing the bilingual advantage in theory of mind and its cognitive underpinnings. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(2), 396–409. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nilsson, K. K., & de López, K. J.
(2016) Theory of Mind in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Child development, 87(1), 143–153. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ohashi, J. K., Mirenda, P., Marinova-Todd, S., Hambly, C., Fombonne, E., Szatmari, P, Bryson, S., Roberts, W., Smith, I., Vaillancourt, T., Volden, J., Waddell, C., Zwaigenbaum, L., Georgiades, S., Duku, E., Thompson, A.
, & the Pathways in ASD Study Team (2012) Comparing early language development in monolingual-and bilingual-exposed young children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(2), 890–897. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Oller, D. K., Pearson, B. Z., & Cobo-Lewis, A. B.
(2007) Profile effects in early bilingual language and literacy. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28(2), 191–230. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paradis, J.
(2007) Bilingual children with specific language impairment: Theoretical and applied issues. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 512–564. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Park, J., Miller, C. A., Sanjeevan, T., van Hell, J. G., Weiss, D. J., & Mainela-Arnold, E.
(2019) Bilingualism and attention in typically developing children and children with developmental language disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62, 4105–4118. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, S. C., & Oller, D. K.
(1993) Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: Comparison to monolingual norms. Language Learning, 43, 93–120. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peets, K. F., & Bialystok, E.
(2010) An integrated approach to the study of specific language impairment and bilingualism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31, 315–319. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peristeri, E., & Tsimpli, I. M.
(2010) An interference method to investigate working memory in Greek-speaking patients with Broca’s aphasia. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 6, 66–67. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peristeri, E., Tsimpli, I. M., Sorace, A., & Tsapkini, K.
(2018) Language interference and inhibition in early and late successive bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(5), 1009–1034. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peristeri, E., Baldimtsi, E., Tsimpli, I. M., & Durrleman, S.
(2019) Bilingualism effects in children with developmental language disorder: Metalinguistic awareness, executive functions, and false-belief reasoning. In M. M. Brown & B. Dailey (Eds.), BUCLD 43: Proceedings of the 43rd annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 549–560). Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Peristeri, E., Baldimtsi, E., Andreou, M., & Tsimpli, I. M.
(2020) The impact of bilingualism on the narrative ability and the executive functions of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Communication Disorders, 85, 105999. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Peristeri, E., Baldimtsi, E., Vogelzang, M., Tsimpli, I. M., & Durrleman, S.
(2021) The cognitive benefits of bilingualism in autism spectrum disorder: Is theory of mind boosted and by which underlying factors? Autism Research, 14(8), 1695–1709. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Petersen, J. M., Marinova-Todd, S. H., & Mirenda, P.
(2012) Brief report: An exploratory study of lexical skills in bilingual children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(7), 1499–1503. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Poarch, G. J.
(2018) Multilingual language control and executive function: A replication study. Frontiers in Communication, 3, 46. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reetzke, R., Zou, X., Sheng, L., & Katsos, N.
(2015) Communicative development in bilingually exposed Chinese children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(3), 813–825. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Renfrew, C.
(1997) Word finding vocabulary test (The Renfrew language scales). Winslow Press.Google Scholar
Riches, N. G., Loucas, T., Baird, G., Charman, T., & Simonoff, E.
(2010) Sentence repetition in adolescents with specific language impairments and autism: An investigation of complex syntax. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 45(1), 47–60. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rothermund, K., Wentura, D., & De Houwer, J.
(2005) Retrieval of incidental stimulus-response associations as a source of negative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(3), 482–495.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Le Couteur, A., & Lord, C.
(2003) ADI-R: The autism diagnostic interview-revised. Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Schick, B., de Villiers, P., de Villiers, J., & Hoffmeister, R.
(2007) Language and theory of mind: a study of deaf children. Child development, 78(2), 376–396. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schneider W., Eschman A., & Zuccolotto A.
(2012) E-Prime user’s guide. Psychology Software Tools.Google Scholar
Schroeder, S. R.
(2018) Do bilinguals have an advantage in theory of mind? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Communications, 3, 36. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Soliman, A. M.
(2014) Bilingual advantages of working memory revisited: A latent variable examination. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 168–177. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stavrakaki, S., & Tsimpli, Ι. M.
(2000) Diagnostic verbal IQ test for Greek preschool and school age children: Standardization, statistical analysis, psychometric properties. In M. Glykas & G. Kalomiris (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Symposium of the Panhellenic Association of Logopedists (pp. 95–106). Ellinika Grammata.Google Scholar
Stavrakaki, S., Chrysomallis, M. A., & Petraki, E.
(2011) Subject – verb agreement, object clitics and wh-questions in bilingual French – Greek SLI: The case study of a French – Greek-speaking child with SLI. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 25(5), 339–367. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. K., Fossum, K.-L. M., & Collins, T. B.
(2006) A longitudinal study of belief and desire state discourse during mother-child play and later false belief understanding. Social Development, 15, 676–691. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tager-Flusberg, H., & Joseph, R. M.
(2005) How language facilitates the acquisition of false beliefs in children with autism. In J. W. Astington & J. A. Baird (Eds.), Why language matters for theory of mind. Oxford University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Talli, I., & Stavrakaki, S.
(2020) Short-term memory, working memory and linguistic abilities in bilingual children with developmental language disorder. First Language, 40(4), 437–460. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thomaidis, L., Mavroeidi, N., Richardson, C., Choleva, A., Damianos, G., Bolias, K., & Tsolia, M.
(2020) Autism spectrum disorders in Greece: Nationwide prevalence in 10–11-year-old children and regional disparities. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(7), 2163. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A.
(2006) Conversation and developing understanding: Introduction to the special issue. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52(1), 1–16. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tipper S. P., Brehaut J. C., & Driver J.
(1990) Selection of moving and static objects for the control of spatially-directed action. The Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16, 492–504. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Treccani, B., Argyri, E., Sorace, A., & Della Sala, S.
(2009) Spatial negative priming in bilingualism. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 320–327. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Umbel, V. M., Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, M. C., & Oller, D. K.
(1992) Measuring bilingual children’s receptive vocabularies. Child Development, 63, 1012–1020. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Valicenti-McDermott, M., Tarshis, N., Schouls, M., Galdston, M., Hottinger, K., Seijo, R., Shulman, L., & Shinnar, S.
(2013) Language differences between monolingual English and bilingual English – Spanish young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Neurology, 28(7), 945–948. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vogindroukas, I., Protopapas, A., & Sideridis, G.
(2009) Expressive vocabulary assessment (Δοκιμασία εκφραστικού λεξιλογίου) [Greek version of Renfrew word finding vocabulary test]. Glafki.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D.
(1992) WISC-III: Wechsler intelligence scale for children – Third edition: Manual (Australian adaptation). Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Yirmiya, N., Erel, O., Shaked, M., & Solomonica-Levi, D.
(1998) Meta-analyses comparing theory of mind abilities of individuals with autism, individuals with mental retardation, and normally developing individuals. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 283–307. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ziatas, K., Durkin, K., & Pratt, C.
(1998) Belief term development in children with autism, Asperger syndrome, specific language impairment and normal development: Links to theory of mind development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 755–763. DOI logoGoogle Scholar