Word classes and the scope of lexical flexibility in Tongan
Tongan is an Oceanic language belonging to the Polynesian subgroup. Based on previous work (Churchward 1953, Tchekhoff 1981, Broschart 1997), Tongan has been classified as a 'flexible' language by various typological approaches on word classes (Hengeveld 1992, Rijkhoff 1998, Croft 2001). This means that lexical items are per se not categorised in terms of major word classes, but they can function as noun, verb, adjective and manner adverb without morphosyntactic derivation. However, not all lexemes are entirely flexible occurring within all these constructions. So the crucial issue of how flexible Tongan really is remains. This question will be addressed by a survey based on a combination of syntactic and semantic word class criteria – basically following Croft's prototype approach (2000, 2001) but also considering Hengeveld & Rijkhoff's work (Hengeveld 1992, Hengeveld, Rijkhoff & Siewierska 2004, Hengeveld 2013) Evans & Osada's work (2005). It reveals the scope of lexical flexibility for various lexemes and semantic groups.
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Defining word classes & lexical flexibility
- 2.1Hengeveld & Rijkhoff’s approach
- 2.2Croft’s approach
- 2.3Evans & Osada’s criteria of lexical flexibility
- 3.Word classes and lexical flexibility in Tongan
- 3.1Pragmatic versus syntactic criteria
- 3.2Morphology and word classes
- 3.3Syntactic & semantic criteria
- 3.4Semantic considerations
- 3.5Syntactic considerations
- 4.Survey regarding the scope of lexical flexibility in Tongan
- 5.Conclusion
- 5.1Further research on lexical flexibility & prototypicality in Tongan
- Notes
-
References
References
Anderson, Victoria & Yuko Otsuka
2006 The phonetics and phonology of ‘definite accent’ in Tongan.
Oceanic Linguistics 45 (1). 21–42.
Anward, Jan, Edith Moravcsik & Leon Stassen
1997 Parts of speech. A challenge for typology.
Linguistic Typology 11. 167–183.
Bisang, Walter
2011 Word classes. In
Jae Jung Song (ed.),
The Oxford handbook of Linguistic Typology, 280–302. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bisang, Walter
2013 Word classes between flexibility and rigidity. An integrative approach. In
Jan Rijkhoff &
Eva van Lier (eds.),
Flexible word classes. Typological studies of underspecified parts of speech, 275–303. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Broschart, Jürgen
1995 Why Tongan does it differently. Categorial distinctions in a language without nouns and verbs (
Arbeiten des Sonderforschungsbereichs 282). Köln: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft.
Broschart, Jürgen
1997 Why Tongan does it differently. Categorial distinctions in a language without nouns and verbs.
Linguistic Typology 11. 123–165.
Churchward, Clerk
1953 Tongan grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Churchward, Clerk
1959 Dictionary Tongan – English, English – Tongan. Nuku‘alofa: Government of Tonga Printing Press.
Croft, William
2000 Parts of speech as language universals and as language-particular categories. In
Petra Vogel &
Bernard Comrie (eds.),
Approaches to the typology of word classes, 65–102. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Croft, William
2001 Radical construction grammar. Syntactic theory in typological perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Evans, Nicholas & Toshiki Osada
2005 Mundari: The myth of a language without word classes.
Linguistic Typology 9 (3). 351–390.
Foley, William
2013 List of nouns and verbs for cross-linguistic comparison of root flexibility. (provided the workshop on Lexical flexibility in Oceanic languages, Oct. 2014 in Amsterdam).
Haspelmath, Martin
2001 Word classes and parts of speech. In
Paul Baltes &
Neil Smelser (eds.),
International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences, 16538–16545. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Hengeveld, Kees
1992 Non-verbal predication. Theory, typology, diachrony. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Hengeveld, Kees
2013 Parts-of-speech systems as a basic typological determinant. In
Jan Rijkhoff &
Eva van Lier (eds.),
Flexible word classes. Typological studies of underspecified parts of speech, 31–55. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hengeveld, Kees, Jan Rijkhoff & Anna Siewierska
2004 Part-of-speech systems and word order.
Journal of Linguistics 401. 527–570.
Hengeveld, Kees & Eva van Lier
Hengeveld, Kees & Eva van Lier
2010 An implicational map of parts of speech.
Linguistic Discovery 8 (1). (Special Issue:
Semantic maps. Methods and applications, edited by
Michael Cysouw,
Andrej Malchukov &
Martin Haspelmath). 129–156.
Lehmann, Christian
2008 Roots, stems and word classes.
Studies in Language 32 (3). (Special Issue:
Parts of speech. Descriptive tools, theoretical constructs, edited by
Umberto Ansaldo,
Jan Don &
Roland Pfau). 546–567.
Lynch, John
1998 Pacific languages. An introduction. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Lynch, John, Malcolm Ross & Terry Crowley
2011 The Oceanic languages. London: Routledge.
Morton Lee, Helen
2003 Tongans overseas. Between two shores. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Mosel, Ulrike
2004 Complex predicates and juxtapositional constructions in Samoan. In
Isabelle Bril &
Françoise Ozanne-Rivierre (eds.),
Complex predicates in Oceanic languages, 263–296. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Mosel, Ulrike & Even Hovdhaugen
1992 Samoan reference grammar. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
Rijkhoff, Jan
1998 Verbs and nouns from a cross-linguistic perspective.
Rivista di Linguistica 10 (2). 115–147.
Schachter, Paul & Timothy Shopen
2007 Parts-of-speech systems. In
Timothy Shopen (ed.),
Language typology and syntactic description. Volume 1: Clause structure, 1–60. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taumoefolau, Melenaite
1996 Nominal possessive classification in Tonga. In
John Lynch &
Fa‘afo Pat (eds.),
Oceanic studies. Proceedings of the first international conference on Oceanic linguistics (
Pacific Linguistics Series C 133), 293–304. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Taumoefolau, Melenaite
1998 Problems in Tongan lexicography. Auckland: University of Auckland PhD thesis.
Tchekhoff, Claude
1981 Simple sentences in Tongan (
Pacific Linguistics Series B 80). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Thompson, Richard & ‘Ofa Thompson
1992 The student’s English – Tongan and Tongan – English dictionary. Nuku‘alofa: Friendly Islands Bookshop.
Tongan government
2011 Tonga 2011. Census of population and housing. Nuku‘alofa: Statistics Department Tonga.
van Lier, Eva
2009 Parts of speech and dependent clauses. A typological study. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam PhD thesis.
van Lier, Eva
2014 Questionnaire Lexical flexibility. (for the workshop on Lexical flexibility in Oceanic languages, Oct. 2014 in Amsterdam).
van Lier, Eva & Jan Rijkhoff
2013 Flexible word classes in linguistic typology and grammatical theory. In
Jan Rijkhoff &
Eva van Lier (eds.),
Flexible word classes. Typological studies of underspecified parts of speech, 1–30. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vonen, Arnfinn Muruvik
2000 Polynesian multifunctionality and the ambitions of linguistic description. In
Petra Vogel &
Bernard Comrie (eds.),
Approaches to the typology of word classes, 479–487. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Wierzbicka, Anna
2000 Lexical prototypes as a universal basis for cross-linguistic identification of ‘parts of speech’. In
Petra Vogel &
Bernard Comrie (eds.),
Approaches to the typology of word classes, 285–317. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Wilson, William
1982 Proto-Polynesian possessive marking (
Pacific Linguistics Series B 85). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Cited by
Cited by 3 other publications
van Lier, Eva
2016.
Lexical flexibility in Oceanic languages.
Linguistic Typology 20:2
► pp. 197 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 14 april 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers.
Any errors therein should be reported to them.