Index

• Accessibility Hierarchy186, 292, 311

• accusative24, 35, 37, 88–89, 91, 96, 176, 179

• acquisition1, 135–136, 166

• adjective3, 14, 28–29, 42–44, 52, 55, 68, 84, 86, 94, 115, 136, 164–165, 167, 173–183, 193, 235–256, 262

• adverb3, 12, 132–133, 136, 139–144, 148–153, 189–190, 204, 237, 262, 306, 311

• adverbial28–29, 54, 84, 132, 137, 139, 146, 154, 312

• affix, cf. also prefix and suffix22, 24, 26, 32–33, 38, 46, 341

• age6, 14, 232, 238, 240–243, 245, 247–255, 266

• agreement30–32, 44, 89, 165, 173, 311, 313–314, 316–318, 339

• Alemannic162–166, 168–169, 173–177, 179–180, 183, 185–188, 190–194

• allomorphy40–41, 83–84, 96

• ambiguity10, 13, 85, 145, 166, 201, 226

• American English227, 264, 266, 268–270, 278, 281

• amplifier235–255

• analogy34–36, 79, 83, 88, 95

• Anong26–27

• aorist24–25, 34, 37–38, 40

• Apparent time239–240, 248–249, 252, 283

• archaic / archaism / archaizing5, 71, 78, 80–81, 85, 92, 96–97, 179, 292

• article52–56, 70, 162, 165, 167, 169, 173–174, 181, 183, 188

• aspect40–41, 140, 221

• attrition6, 12, 22, 31–32, 226
  • lexical attrition6, 13, 226
  • phonological attrition22
  • language attrition22, 31–32

• Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy200, 207, 220–221, 223, 226

• bilingualism, cf. also multilingualism334, 355, 357

• bleaching9, 134, 145–146, 149, 153

• Bokmål43

• borrowing8, 88–90, 94 (cf. also language contact)

• Bulgarian44, 140, 149

• Canadian English204, 237

• case / case marking7, 22–46, 76, 80, 83–86, 162, 166–194, 311, 335–336, 342, 344, 346, 351

• causative123

• chancery language293–294, 296, 300–302, 306–309, 315, 317

• Chinese9, 131–155, 335

• classifier133, 142, 239

• collocation12, 110, 116–125, 239–240

• colloquial / colloquialization /colloquial varieties9, 69–71, 162, 166–170, 193, 305

• comparative42–43, 244, 292

• competition2, 4,44, 59–60, 66–68, 88, 94, 117, 138, 150, 152, 166, 171–172, 212, 240, 264, 297, 309–319

• complexity8, 45, 310, 316–317, 334, 356

• compositionality / non-compositionality4, 12, 133, 137–140, 144–145

• conjugation334, 336, 342–354

• conservatism / conservative language use80, 83, 201, 205, 212, 220–223, 226–227

• construct137, 139, 149–150, 152

• Construction Grammar4, 52, 131–135, 137–138, 150, 153–155, 262, 275

• contact: cf. language contact

• convergence23, 34–35

• copula84, 86, 207

• countability122–123

• Dargwa42

• dative29, 80, 88–89, 91, 93, 95–96, 168, 170–172, 176, 179
  • possessive dative168, 170–172

• definiteness175, 177
  • definite175–177, 180–181, 183, 188
  • indefinite52–56, 175–177, 180–181

• degeneracy131–132, 153–154

• degree43, 55

• degree modifiers142–143, 258

• delexicalization239–240

• democratization9, 70, 261, 267, 271, 273, 276, 282, 308, 317–319

• demonstrative181, 183, 188

• dependency167, 170, 173, 193

• derivation / derivational morphology: cf. morphology

• determiner, cf. also article68, 84–85, 153, 165, 181

• diachronic construction grammar4, 131, 134–135, 137–138, 150, 153–155

• diminutive142

• distributional fragmentation59, 61, 64, 70, 318

• dominant language / dominant variety177, 336–338, 355–358

• dual38, 154, 333, 336–337, 341, 344, 346, 354–355, 358

• Early New High German (EarlNHG)163, 175–176, 291, 314

• (language) economy7, 84, 96, 309–310, 316

• Egyptian37, 40

• exaptation22, 131–132, 153–154

• extravagance7–8, 55–56, 71, 150, 152

• free variation10, 37, 40, 188

• functional load2, 6–7, 163, 171, 173, 182, 189, 193–194

• future24–25, 33–34, 37, 44, 153

• gender2–3, 14, 36, 40, 42, 165, 173, 176–177, 180, 201, 204, 238, 240–243, 247–248, 250, 255, 311–314, 316–317, 334, 357
  • grammaticalgender2–3, 36–37, 40, 42, 165, 173, 176–177, 180, 311–314, 316–317, 334, 357

• generalisation /generalization28, 31–33, 37, 41, 44, 52, 133–137, 145, 150, 153–154, 240

• generative grammar4, 165–166

• genitive22, 24, 29, 34, 153, 162, 166–173, 193–194, 311–312

• genre6, 11, 14–15, 56, 59, 61–65, 81–82, 97, 103, 112, 118–119, 122, 124–125, 133–134, 256, 261–264, 267–268, 270, 273–274, 279, 281–284, 291–306, 310, 317–318

• Georgian28–29

• gradability244, 255

• grammaticalisation / grammaticalization1, 8,21–22, 44–45, 71, 137, 146, 150, 154, 161–162, 204, 239, 244, 264

• Greek24–25, 34, 37, 40, 44

• head94, 166, 171–173, 183, 192–193, 297, 311–314

• hedge / hedging9, 262, 276–283

• Himalayan languages349

• hyperbole145–146, 150–152

• hypercorrection81, 294, 296, 303

• imperfective40–41, 43, 144

• impersonal verb / impersonal construction3, 7–8, 11, 75–77, 82, 87–97, 114, 131, 134, 153

• indicative24–25, 34, 37

• inflection / inflectional morphology: cf. morphology

• intensifier5–6, 8–9, 14, 237–241, 248–249

• intransitive: cf. transitivity

• irrealis40–41

• Kiranti languages15, 31, 333–336, 344, 348, 354–355, 358

• Koĩc2–3, 8, 15, 31, 333–342, 344–358

• language attrition: cf. attrition

• language contact8, 10, 15, 22, 38, 182, 334, 354–357

• language economy: cf. economy

• language typology: cf. typology

• Late Modern English (LModE)6, 11, 13, 101–103, 123, 195, 202, 205, 226, 262, 264, 319

• Latin35–37, 115, 123, 202

• lexical attrition: cf. attrition

• lexical bundle11, 101–103, 104–110, 114–124

• lexical replacement12, 80, 86–87, 93, 249

• literalization70, 319

• logistic regression model4, 210–211, 246, 250–254

• Low Alemannic163, 174

• Malayalam25–27, 33–34

• Mand30–33

• measure phrase167–168, 172–173

• modal / modality3, 6, 14, 59, 65, 131, 133, 209, 261–284, 286–287
  • deontic modality14, 131, 262–283
  • epistemic modality14, 140, 262–276, 281
  • semi-modal6, 14, 261–262, 264, 267

• modernization80

• modifier28, 54, 85, 115, 142–143, 179, 239

• mood24, 40, 123

• morphology2–4, 7, 10–11, 21–22, 30, 35, 45, 75, 78, 86–87, 96, 102, 122, 171, 201, 223, 334–336, 348–349, 351, 354–355, 357
  • derivational morphology22, 75, 86–87, 94, 96
  • inflectional morphology4, 7, 10, 13, 21–23, 26, 28, 32, 35, 37, 42, 44–46, 75–76, 85–86, 161–162, 165, 167, 173–177, 179–185, 193, 233, 311, 341, 355–357, 359
  • morphological support93–94, 96

• multilingualism, cf. also bilingualism78, 81

• Nakh languages28

• natural language processing102

• naturalness308–309, 316

• Ncam40–41

• negation / negative25, 33, 44–45, 59, 67, 65, 67, 132, 140–141, 144–145, 149–152, 204, 240, 295, 305, 309, 342, 346–347, 352, 358

• Nepali8, 15, 31, 333, 335, 337–339, 354–355, 357–358

• New Zealand English (NZE)3, 8–9, 14, 235–237, 239–241, 248–250, 260–262

• ngrams12, 101–104, 107–119, 121–122, 124

• nominative24, 29, 34–36, 87–89, 93, 176, 179

• non-compositionality: cf. compositionality

• non-standard language / non-standard variety161–162, 166, 168, 170, 173, 194, 203, 213, 357

• number24, 26–28, 31, 38–42, 85–86, 122, 154, 162, 165, 173, 177, 179, 311–312, 314, 339, 341–349, 354

• object15, 31, 54, 79, 84, 88–89, 95, 141, 186, 292–293, 296–297, 311–312, 333–336, 341–358

• obsolescence / obsolescent10–12, 51–52, 59–61, 64–66, 69–70, 75, 80, 83, 86–87, 93, 96, 101–105, 109–121, 123–125, 132, 138, 144, 150, 153–154, 291–293, 299, 301, 317–320
  • grammatical obsolescence10–11, 51–52, 59–61, 70, 101, 291–292, 312
  • lexical obsolescence11–12, 75, 83, 87, 96, 101–102, 114, 116

• obsolete7, 12, 59, 101–102, 104–105, 112–114, 117, 119, 122, 124–125, 148, 150, 153, 319

• Old French23, 35–37, 88

• Old High German (OHG)162–163, 175–176, 189, 191

• Old Norse42, 88

• optional / optionality13, 31–32, 139, 142, 161–162, 173, 179–184, 193, 204, 278, 344, 351

• paradigmatic atrophy11, 59–60, 65–66, 70

• participle43–44, 115, 131, 207, 212, 223, 333, 358
  • past participle43, 131, 207, 358

• particle15, 44, 70, 132, 162, 166, 185–187, 189–192, 291, 294, 297, 306–307, 311, 313, 315, 326

• passive122–123, 146, 202–203, 207, 275–277

• perfect / perfective3, 6, 13, 24, 40–41, 132, 143–144, 163, 199–227, 231, 315, 358
  • double perfect construction163–164

• person24, 26–27, 30–33, 38–40, 42, 45, 89, 132, 140, 165, 173, 204, 226, 262, 277, 280, 305, 312, 314, 333, 339, 341–349, 353–354, 358

• personal pronoun95, 181

• plural24, 27, 31–32, 34–35, 37–41, 45, 53, 79, 86, 122, 176, 179, 262, 277, 295, 333, 336, 341, 343–346, 351, 353–354, 358

• polarity25, 33, 240

• politeness267, 283–284

• polysemy293, 298, 310, 312–313

• possessive pronoun171

• postdeterminer239

• pragmatic / pragmatics3, 12, 14, 55, 70, 80, 121–122, 131–133, 141, 144–146, 150, 152, 154, 201, 244, 266, 272, 295, 310–312, 316–317, 335

• predeterminer52–53, 56, 62, 65

• prefix38, 90–91, 94

• preposition167, 171, 190, 203, 211–212

• prestige293–294, 296, 300–301

• preterite43, 341–343, 345–348, 353, 358
  • preterite-present264

• priming14, 153–154, 242, 246, 250–251, 255–256

• productive / productivity4, 11–12, 52, 59, 86, 88, 134, 137–138, 145, 147, 163, 166, 168–169, 171, 173, 181, 190, 194, 201, 203–204, 275

• progressive43, 55, 71, 202, 205

• prototypical / prototypicality7–9, 12, 87, 116, 131–132, 134–137, 144, 148–149, 154, 226, 277, 279

• (finite and non-finite) purpose subordinator64, 69, 319

• realis40–41

• reflexive132, 334, 345–346, 348, 354

• register5, 15, 81, 182, 201–202, 256, 264, 317

• relative clause13, 161–162, 164, 166, 184–192, 292–293, 297–305, 310–311, 315–316, 326

• relative pronoun7–8, 10, 166, 181, 188, 297–298, 300, 302–304, 306, 309–311

• relativiser / relativizer15, 122, 291–318

• renewal5, 14, 77, 97, 132, 153–154, 237, 241

• replacement2, 5–7, 9–12, 14, 23, 27, 29–30, 33–34, 37, 55, 80, 83, 86–87, 93–94, 96, 117–120, 122, 169–170, 235–236, 249, 254, 271

• resilience77, 97, 264

• resumptive pronoun186–188

• rhematic function11, 54, 70–71

• schema6–7, 12, 131–155, 319
  • subschema12, 137–138, 143–144, 146–147, 150–152, 154
  • schema loss12, 131–134, 138, 144, 154

• schematicity4, 12, 133, 137–138, 143, 145, 155

• semantic shift93, 118, 122

• Serbian44

• sex13, 199, 206, 210–211, 213, 216, 218–220, 223–224, 226, 231–233, 243

• simplicity / simplification22, 36, 83, 307, 348, 355–356

• singular24, 27, 31, 33, 35–39, 41, 45, 52, 89, 132, 176, 179–180, 226, 311, 334, 336, 341–349, 353, 358

• social class13, 205, 210–212, 217–227, 231–233, 238, 307–308

• socio-cultural change6, 9, 11, 14, 69, 267, 282–284, 291, 319

• sociolinguistic /sociolinguistics5–6, 11, 13–15, 32, 81, 97, 194, 199, 201, 204–205, 210–211, 213, 216–217, 227, 242, 255, 291–292, 300, 334, 336–338, 354–357

• specifier182, 192–193

• spelling24, 79, 83, 106, 114–115, 181

• standard language / standard variety, cf. also non-standard language45, 166, 170, 181, 184, 190, 203–204, 213, 227, 264, 300–301, 306, 309–310, 317, 319, 338, 357

• standardisation / standardization17, 102, 170, 286, 295, 309

• stem24–26, 28–29, 32–33, 35–36, 40, 62, 87, 168, 174, 181, 346

• style / stylistic2, 6, 9, 15, 43, 55–56, 68, 80–81, 97, 138, 152, 205, 267–268, 291, 293, 296, 298, 300, 302–308, 317–319

• subject15, 24–27, 30–31, 33–35, 37, 40, 44, 54, 79, 84, 88–89, 141, 173, 183, 186, 204, 266, 292–293, 296–297, 311–312, 333–336, 340–355, 358

• subjunctive24–25, 34, 37, 123

• suffix24–33, 41, 43, 86, 94, 142, 181, 335, 341–346, 349, 351

• Sunwar333, 335, 343, 349, 358

• Surel341, 356

• Swabian163, 174

• syncretism7, 27, 34–37, 45, 345

• syntactic function51, 54, 165, 236, 238–239, 249–250, 311–312

• system dependency60

• Tamil25–26

• tense25, 33, 38–39, 44, 165, 183, 204, 207, 341–343, 345–348, 351, 353, 358

• Tibeto-Burman languages15, 333, 335–337, 346, 349

• transitivity200, 333
  • ditransitive133, 135–138
  • intransitive135, 199–200, 202, 206, 208, 213, 334–336, 342, 344–348, 353–354
  • transitive15, 31, 88, 153, 199–200, 203, 207, 333–336, 341–349, 353–354, 361

• (lexical) trash105–107, 109, 114–116

• (language) typology / typological4, 8, 10, 14–15, 21, 23, 46, 75–76, 78, 83–84, 87, 114, 291, 310, 316–317, 319
  • typological drift8, 15, 291, 316–137
  • typological change8, 14, 75–76, 78, 83–84, 114, 291, 319

• Updated Old English4, 11, 75–97

• verb-second2, 84, 88, 95, 297

• West Germanic dialects32–33

• word order2–3, 22, 28, 88, 95, 316, 350

• zero article53

• zero marking22, 36, 175, 348

• Zipf’s law107–108