Cover not available
Part of
Reading Comprehension in Educational Settings
Edited by José A. León and Inmaculada Escudero
[Studies in Written Language and Literacy 16] 2017
► pp. 1–27

Chapter 1
What we know about skilled, beginning, and older readers from monitoring their eye movements

Implications for teaching reading

| Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
| Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego

In this chapter, we will discuss research conducted over the past 40 years dealing with the eye movements during reading of skilled readers as compared to poor readers, as well as beginning and older readers. We will discuss issues related to the perceptual span (or area of effective vision), preview benefit, basic characteristics of eye movements, and eye movement control across the different groups – asking what we can infer about each group’s reading behavior from their eye movements. We will then discuss attempts to model different stages of reading development over the lifespan. Finally, we will discuss the implications that this research has for teaching children to read.

Article outline
  • Eye movements during reading
  • Skilled readers
    • Basic characteristics of eye movements
    • Perceptual span and preview benefit
    • Direct control of eye movements
    • Eye movements of poor readers
  • Beginning readers
  • Older readers
  • Modeling the eye movements of skilled, beginning, and older readers
  • Implications for reading instruction
  • Conclusions
  • References
Published online: 19 October 2017
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/swll.16.01lei
References
Adams, M. J.
(1990) Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Aghababian, V. & Nazir, T. A.
(2000) Developing normal reading skills: Aspects of the visual processes underlying word recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 76, 123–150. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ashby, J., Dix, H., Bontrager, M., Dey, R., & Archer, A.
(2013) Phonemic awareness contributes to text reading fluency: Evidence from eye movements. School Psychology Review, 42, 157–170.Google Scholar
Ashby, J. & Rayner, K.
(2006) Literacy development: Insights from research on skilled reading. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 52–63). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Ashby, J., Rayner, K., & Clifton, C.
(2005) Eye movements of highly skilled and average readers: Differential effects of frequency and predictability. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 1065–1086. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ashby, J., Yang, J., Evans, K. H. C., & Rayner, K.
(2012) Eye movements and the perceptual span in silent and oral reading. Attention Perception & Psychophysics, 74, 634–640. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ball, K. K., Beard, B. L., Roenker, D. L., Miller, R. L. & Griggs, D. S.
(1988) Age and visual search: Expanding the useful field of view. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 5, 2210–2219. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blythe, H. I.
(2014) Developmental changes in eye movements and visual information encoding associated with learning to read. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 201–207. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blythe, H. I., Häikiö, T., Bertram, R., Liversedge, S. P., Hyönä, J.
(2011) Reading disappearing text: Why do children refixate words? Vision Research, 51, 84–92. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Blythe, H. I., Liversedge, S. P., Joseph, H. S. S. L., White, S. J., & Rayner, K.
(2009) Visual information capture during fixations in reading for children and adults. Vision research, 49, 1583–1591. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Buswell, G. T.
(1922) Fundamental reading habits: A study of their development. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, F. W., & Wurtz, R. H.
(1978) Saccadic omission: why we do not see a grey-out during a saccadic eye movement. Vision Research, 18, 1297–1303. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chace, K. H., Rayner, K., & Well, A. D.
(2005) Eye movements and phonological parafoveal preview: Effects of reading skill. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 209–217. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Chall, J. S.
(1967) Learning to read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J.
(2001) DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108, 204–256. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dambacher, M., Slattery, T. J., Yang, J., Kliegl, R., & Rayner, K.
(2013) Evidence for direct control of eye movements during reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39, 1468–1484.Google Scholar
Deubel, H., & Schneider, W. X.
(1996) Saccade target selection and object recognition: Evidence for a common attentional mechanism. Vision Research, 36, 1827–1837. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Duffy, S. A., Morris, R. K., & Rayner, K.
(1988) Lexical ambiguity and fixation times in reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 429–446. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Dunn-Rankin, P.
(1978) The visual characteristics of words. Scientific American, 238, 122–130. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ehrlich, S. F. & Rayner, K.
(1981) Contextual effects on word recognition and eye movements during reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 641–655. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Engbert, R., Longtin, A., & Kliegl, R.
(2002) A dynamical model of saccade generation in reading based on spatially distributed lexical processing. Vision research, 42, 621–636. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Engbert, R., Nuthmann, A., Richter, E. M., & Kliegl, R.
(2005) SWIFT: a dynamical model of saccade generation during reading. Psychological review, 112, 777. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Everatt, J. & Underwood, G.
(1994) Individual differences in reading subprocesses: Relationships between reading ability, lexical access, and eye movement control. Language and Speech, 37, 283–297. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Finn, P. J.
(1977–1978) Word frequency, information theory, and cloze performance: A transfer feature theory of processing in reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 13, 508–537. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Frazier, L. & Rayner, K.
(1982) Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 178–210. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Goodman, K. S.
(1967) Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 6, 126–135. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gough, P. B.
(1983) Context, form, and interaction. In K. Rayner (Ed.). Eye movements in reading (pp. 203–211). New York: Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Gough, P. B. & Hillinger, M. L.
(1980) Learning to read: An unnatural act. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 30, 179–196. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Haenggi, D. & Perfetti, C. A.
(1994) Processing components of college-level reading comprehension. Discourse Processes, 17, 83–104. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Häikiö, T., Bertram, R., Hyönä, J., & Niemi, P.
(2009) Development of the letter identity span in reading: Evidence from the eye movement moving window paradigm. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102, 167–181. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Huestegge, L., Radach, R., Corbic, D., & Huestegge, S. M.
(2009) Oculomotor and linguistic determinants of reading development: A longitudinal study. Vision Research, 49, 2948–2959. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Hyönä, J. & Olson, R. K.
(1995) Eye fixation patterns among dyslexic and normal readers: Effects of word length and word frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1430–1440.Google Scholar
Inhoff, A. W., & Rayner, K.
(1986) Parafoveal word processing during eye fixations in reading: Effects of word frequency. Perception & Psychophysics, 40, 431–439. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Inhoff, A. W. & Topolski, R.
(1994) Use of phonological codes during eye fixations in reading and in on-line and delayed naming tasks. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 689–713. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ishida, T., & Ikeda, M.
(1989) Temporal properties of information extraction in reading studied by a text-mask replacement technique. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 6, 1624–1632. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jackson, M. D., & McClelland, J. L.
(1979) Processing determinants of reading speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 151–181. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jared, D., Levy, B. A., & Rayner, K.
(1999) The role of phonology in the activation of word meanings during reading: Evidence from proofreading and eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 219–264. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jordan, T. R., Almabruk, A. A. A., Gadalla, E. A., McGowan, V. A., White, S. J., Abedipour, L. A., & Paterson, K. B.
(2014) Reading direction and the central perceptual span: Evidence from Arabic and English. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 505–511. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jordan, T. R., McGowan, V. A., & Patterson, K. B.
(2014) Reading with filtered fixations: Age differences in the effectiveness of low-level properties of text within central vision. Psychology and Aging, 29, 229–235. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A. F. & Share, D. L.
(1983) An invited article: Phonological recoding and reading acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 4, 103–147. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Joseph, H. S. S. L. & Liversedge, S. P.
(2013) Children’s and adults’ on-line processing of syntactically ambiguous sentences during reading. PLoS ONE, 8, e54141. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Joseph, H. S. S. L. & Liversedge, S. P., Blythe, H. I., White, S. J., Gathercole, S. E., & Rayner, K.
(2008) Children’s and adults’ processing of anomaly and implausibility during reading: Evidence from eye movements. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 708–723. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Joseph, H. S. S. L. & Liversedge, S. P., Blythe, H. I., White, S. J., & Rayner, K.
(2009) Word length and landing position effects during reading in children and adults. Vision Research, 49, 2078–2086. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Joseph, H. S. S. L., Nation, K. & Liversedge, S. P.
(2013) Using eye movements to investigate word frequency effects in children’s sentence reading. School Psychology Review, 42, 207–222.Google Scholar
Juhasz, B. J., & Rayner, K.
(2003) Investigating the effects of a set of intercorrelated variables on eye fixation durations in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 1312–1318.Google Scholar
(2006) The role of age of acquisition and word frequency in reading: Evidence from eye fixation durations. Visual Cognition, 13, 846–863. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kemper, S. Crow, A. & Kemtes, K.
(2004) Eye-fixation patterns of high- and low- span young and older adults: Down the garden path and back again. Psychology and Aging, 19, 157–170. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kemper, S. & Liu, C. -J.
(2007) Eye movements of young and older adults during reading. Psychology and Aging, 22, 84–93. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kliegl, R., Grabner, E., Rolfs, M., & Engbert, R.
(2004) Length, frequency, and predictability effects of words on eye movements in reading. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 262–284. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kowler, E., Anderson, E., Dosher, B., & Blaser, E.
(1995) The role of attention in the programming of saccades. Vision Research, 35, 1897–1916. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Laubrock, J., Kliegl, R., & Engbert, R.
(2006) SWIFT explorations of age differences in eye movements during reading. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 872–884. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Leinenger, M.
(2014) Phonological coding during reading. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1534–1555. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lefton, L. A., Nagle, R. J., Johnson, G., Fisher, D. F.
(1979) Eye movement dynamics of good and poor readers: Then and now. Journal of Reading Behavior, 11, 319–328. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Levy, R., Bicknell, K., Slattery, T., & Rayner, K.
(2009) Eye movement evidence that readers maintain and act on uncertainty about past linguistic input. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 21086–21090. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Liversedge, S. P., Rayner, K., White, S. J., Vergilino-Perez, D., Findlay, J. M., & Kentridge, R. W.
(2004) Eye movements when reading disappearing text: is there a gap effect in reading?. Vision research, 44, 1013–1024. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Luke, S. G., Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, F.
(2015) Children’s eye-movements during reading reflect the quality of lexical representations: An individual differences approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 1675–1683.Google Scholar
Matin, E.
(1974) Saccadic suppression: a review and an analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 899–917. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McConkie, G. W., Kerr, P. W., Reddix, M. D., & Zola, D.
(1988) Eye movement control during reading: 1. The location of initial eye fixations on words. Vision Research, 28, 1107–1118. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K.
(1975) The span of the effective stimulus during a fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 17, 578–586. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1976) Asymmetry of the perceptual span in reading. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 8, 365–368. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McConkie, G. W., & Zola, D.
(1979) Is visual information integrated across successive fixations in reading?. Perception & Psychophysics, 25, 221–224. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McConkie, G. W., Zola, D., Grimes, J., Kerr, P. W., Bryant, N. R., & Wolff, P. M.
(1991) Children’s eye movements during reading. In J. F. Stein (Ed.), Vision and visual dyslexia (pp. 251–262). London: Macmillan Press.Google Scholar
McCusker, L. X., Hillinger, M. L., & Bias, R. G.
(1981) Phonological recoding and reading. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 217–245. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
McGowan, V. A., White, S. W., Jordan, T. R., & Patterson, K. B.
(2014) Aging and the use of inter-word spaces during reading: Evidence from eye movements. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 740–747. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Miellet, S., O’Donnell, P. J., & Sereno, S. C.
(2009) Parafoveal magnification: Visual acuity does not modulate the perceptual span in reading. Psychological Science, 20, 721–728. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Murray, W. S. & Kennedy, A.
(1988) Spatial coding in the processing of anaphor by good and poor readers: Evidence from eye movement analyses. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 40, 693–718. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Nagy, W. E. & Herman, P. A.
(1987) Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19–35). New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
National Reading Panel
(2000) Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.Google Scholar
O’Regan, J. K.
(1990) Eye movements and reading. In E. Kowler (Ed.), Eye movements and their role in visual and cognitive processes (pp. 395–453). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Palmer, J., MacLeod, C. M., Hunt, E., & Davidson, J. E.
(1985) Information processing correlates of reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 59–88. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Paterson, K. B., McGowan, V. A., & Jordan, T. R.
(2013a) Aging and the control of binocular eye movements during reading. Psychology and Aging, 28, 789–795. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013b) Effects of adult aging on reading filtered text: Evidence from eye movements. PeerJ 1:e63. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2013c) Filtered text reveals adult age differences in reading: Evidence from eye movements. Psychology and Aging, 28, 352–264. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. & Lesgold, A. M.
(1979) Coding and comprehension in skilled reading and implications for reading instruction. In L. B. Resnick & P. A. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading (pp. 57–84). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Pollatsek, A., Bolozky, S., Well, A. D., & Rayner, K.
(1981) Asymmetries in the perceptual span for Israeli readers. Brain and Language, 14, 174–180. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pollatsek, A., Reichle, E. D., & Rayner, K.
(2006) Tests of the EZ Reader model: Exploring the interface between cognition and eye-movement control. Cognitive Psychology, 52, 1–56. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K.
(1975) The perceptual span and peripheral cues in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65–81. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1978) Eye movements in reading and information processing. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 618–660. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1979) Eye guidance in reading: Fixation locations within words. Perception, 8, 21–30. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1985) The role of eye movements in learning to read and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 53–60. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1986) Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41, 211–236. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(1998) Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 372–422. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2009a) The thrity fifth Sir Frederick Bartlett Lecture: Eye movments and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1457–1506. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2009b) Eye movements in reading: Models and Data. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 2, 1–10.Google Scholar
(2014) The gaze-contingent moving window paradigm: Development and review. Visual Cognition, 22, 242–258. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Ardoin, S. P., & Binder, K. S.
(2013) Children’s eye movements in reading: A commentary. School Psychology Review, 42, 223–233.Google Scholar
Rayner, K. & Bertera, J. H.
(1979) Reading without a fovea. Science, 206, 468–469. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Castelhano, M. S., & Yang, J.
(2009) Eye movements and the perceptual span in older and younger readers. Psychology and Aging, 24, 755–760. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2010) Preview benefit during eye fixations in reading for older and younger readers. Psychology and Aging, 25, 714–718. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., & Duffy, S. A.
(1986) Lexical complexity and fixation times in reading: Effects of word frequency, verb complexity, and lexical ambiguity. Memory & Cognition, 14, 191–201. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S.
(2001) How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2, 31–74. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Inhoff, A. W., Morrison, R. E., Slowiaczek, M. L., & Bertera, J. H.
(1981) Masking of foveal and parafoveal vision during eye fixations in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7, 167–179.Google Scholar
Rayner, K., Kambe, G., & Duffy, S. A.
(2000) The effect of clause wrap-up on eye movements during reading. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A, 53, 1061–1080. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., & White, S. J.
(2006) Eye movements when reading disappearing text: The importance of the word to the right of fixation. Vision Research, 46, 310–323. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., White, S. J., & Vergilino-Perez, D.
(2003) Reading disappearing text cognitive control of eye movements. Psychological Science, 14, 385–388. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K. & McConkie, G. W.
(1976) What guides a reader’s eye movements? Vision Research, 16, 829–837. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Ehrlich, S.
(1978) Eye movements and integrating information across fixations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 529–544.Google Scholar
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Zola, D.
(1980) Integrating information across eye movements. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 206–226. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A.
(1981) Eye movement control during reading: Evidence for direct control. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 33, 351–373. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., Ashby, J., & Clifton Jr., C.
(2012) Psychology of Reading. New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., & Binder, K. S.
(1998) Phonological codes and eye movements in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 476–497.Google Scholar
Rayner, K., Reichle, E. D., Stroud, M. J., Williams, C. C., & Pollatsek, A.
(2006) The effect of word frequency, word predictability, and font difficulty on the eye movements of young and older readers. Psychology and Aging, 21, 448–465. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Slattery, T. J., & Bélanger, N. N.
(2010) Eye movements, the perceptual span, and reading speed. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 834–839. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., & Well, A. D.
(1996) Effects of contextual constraint on eye movements in reading: A further examination. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 504–509. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Well, A. D., & Pollatsek, A.
(1980) Asymmetry of the effective visual field in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 27, 537–544. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Yang, J., Castelhano, M. S., & Liversedge, S. P.
(2011) Eye movements of older and younger readers when reading disappearing text. Psychology and Aging, 26, 214–223. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Yang, J., Schuett, S., & Slattery, T. J.
(2013) Eye movements of older and younger readers when reading unspaced text. Experimental Psychology, 60, 354–361. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Liversedge, S. P., Drieghe, D., Blythe, H. I., Joseph, H. S. S. L., White, S. J., & Rayner, K.
(2013) Using E-Z Reader to examine the concurrent development of eye-movement control and reading skill. Developmental Review, 33, 110–149. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Liversedge, S. P., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K.
(2009) Encoding multiple words simultaneously in reading is implausible. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 115–9. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L., & Rayner, K.
(1998) Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological review, 105, 125–157. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A.
(2003) The EZ Reader model of eye-movement control in reading: Comparisons to other models. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 26, 445–476. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Reingold, E. M., Reichle, E. D., Glaholt, M. G., & Sheridan, H.
(2012) Direct lexical control of eye movements in reading: Evidence from a survival analysis of fixation durations. Cognitive Psychology, 65, 177–206. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Richter, E. M., Engbert, R., & Kliegl, R.
(2006) Current advances in SWIFT. Cognitive Systems Research, 7, 23–33. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schad, D. J., Risse, S., Slattery, T., & Rayner, K.
(2014) Word frequency in fast priming: Evidence for immediate cognitive control of eye movements during reading. Visual Cognition, in press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schilling, H. H., Rayner, K., & Chumbley, J. I.
(1998) Comparing naming, lexical decision, and eye fixation times: Word frequency effects and individual differences. Memory & Cognition, 26, 1270–1281. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schotter, E. R.
(2013) Synonyms provide semantic preview benefit in English. Journal of Memory and Language, 69, 619–633. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schotter, E. R., Angele, B., & Rayner, K.
(2012) Parafoveal processing in reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74, 5–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schotter, E. R. & Leinenger, M.
(2016) Reversed preview benefit effects: Forced fixations emphasize the importance of parafoveal vision for efficient reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42, 2039–2067.Google Scholar
Schwartz, R. M. & Stanovich, K. E.
(1981) Flexibility in the use of graphic and contextual information by good and poor readers. Journal of Literacy Research, 13, 263–269. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S., Waters, G. S., Barnes, M. A., & Tanenhaus, M. K.
(1984) When does irregular spelling or pronunciation influence word recognition? Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 383–404. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sekuler, A. B., Bennett, P. J., & Mamelak, M.
(2000) Effects of aging on the useful field of view. Experimental Aging Research, 26,103–120. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Sereno, S. C., O’Donnell, P. J., & Rayner, K.
(2006) Eye movements and lexical ambiguity resolution: Investigating the subordinate-bias effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 335–350.Google Scholar
Share, D. L.
(1995) Phonological recoding and self-teaching: sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151–218. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Slattery, T. J., Angele, B., & Rayner, K.
(2011) Eye movements and display change detection during reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 37, 1924–1938.Google Scholar
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P.
(Eds.) (1998) Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E.
(1984) The interactive-compensatory model of reading: A confluence of developmental, experimental, and educational psychology. Remedial and Special Education, 5, 11–19. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., Shake, M. C., Miles, J. R., Lee, K., Gao, X., & McConkie, G. W.
(2010) Pay now or pay later: Aging and the role of boundary salience in self-regulation of conceptual integration in sentence processing. Psychology and Aging, 25, 168–176. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. E.
(1965) Eye movements in reading: Facts and fallacies. American Educational Research Journal, 2, 187–202. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Underwood, G., Hubbard, A., & Wilkinson, H.
(1990) Eye fixations predict reading comprehension: The relationships between reading skill, reading speed, and visual inspection. Language and Speech, 33, 69–81. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Underwood, N. R. & Zola, D.
(1986) The span of letter recognition of good and poor readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 6–19. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Valle, A., Binder, K. S., Walsh, C. B., Nemier, C., & Bangs, K. E.
(2013) Eye movements, prosody, and word frequency among average- and high-skilled second-grade readers. School Psychology Review, 42, 171–190.Google Scholar
Veldre, A. & Andrews, S.
(2014a) Parafoveal preview benefit is modulated by the precision of skilled readers’ lexical representations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 41, 219–232.Google Scholar
(2014b) Lexical quality and eye movements: Individual differences in the perceptual span of skilled adult readers. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67, 703–727. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vitu, F., McConkie, G. W., Kerr, P., O’Regan, J. K.
(2001) Fixation location effects on fixation durations during reading: An inverted optimal viewing position effect. Vision Research, 41, 3513–3533. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Vorstius, C., Radach, R., & Lonigan, C. J.
(2014) Eye movements in developing readers: A comparison of silent and oral sentence reading. Visual Cognition, 22, 458–485. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Waters, G. S., Seidenberg, M. S., & Bruck, M.
(1984) Children’s and adults’ use of spelling-sound information in three reading tasks. Memory & Cognition, 12, 293–305. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Weaver, C.
(1994) Reconceptualizing Reading and Dyslexia. Journal of Childhood Communication Disorders, 16, 23–35. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Cited by

Cited by 3 other publications

Bråten, Ivar, Eva W. Brante & Helge I. Strømsø
2019. Teaching Sourcing in Upper Secondary School: A Comprehensive Sourcing Intervention With Follow‐Up Data. Reading Research Quarterly 54:4 ► pp. 481 ff. DOI logo
Eekhof, Lynn S., Moniek M. Kuijpers, Myrthe Faber, Xin Gao, Marloes Mak, Emiel van den Hoven & Roel M. Willems
2021. Lost in a Story, Detached from the Words. Discourse Processes 58:7 ► pp. 595 ff. DOI logo
Payne, Brennan & Kara D. Federmeier
2019. Individual Differences in Reading Speed are Linked to Variability in the Processing of Lexical and Contextual Information: Evidence from Single-trial Event-related Brain Potentials. <i>WORD</i> 65:4 ► pp. 252 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 12 april 2024. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.