Cover not available
Article published In:
The Assessment of Functional Adequacy in Language Performance: Special issue of the Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning 2:1 (2022)
Edited by Folkert Kuiken and Ineke Vedder
[TASK 2:1] 2022
► pp. 33–59

The role of pausing in L2 oral task performance

Toward a complete construct of functional adequacy

ORCID logo | City University of New York
ORCID logo | University College London
ORCID logo | Norwegian University of Science and Technology
| University College London

Studies of L2 oral task performance report fluency as critical for functional adequacy, with pausing behaviors emerging as strong predictors of functionally adequate speech. The present study investigated the extent to which the type and location of pausing is related to functional adequacy. Oral performances on two tasks by 40 L2 speakers of English at four proficiency levels were rated on a functional adequacy scale and analyzed for type of pausing, silent and filled at mid- or end-clause location. The study found significant relationships between functional adequacy and the frequency of end-clause pauses in L2 speech. We interpreted this finding as suggesting that breakdowns in message conceptualization play a role in how the functional adequacy of L2 speech is construed by the listeners.

Keywords: functional adequacy, task, breakdown fluency, silent pausing, filled pausing, rating scale
Article outline
  • Functional adequacy and fluency in L2 speech
  • Pausing in L2 speech
  • Method
    • Dataset
    • Speaking tasks
    • Functional adequacy ratings
    • Pause analyses of speaking performances
    • Statistical analyses
  • Results
    • Functional adequacy and rater severity: Rasch analysis results
    • Pausing and functional adequacy: Results from linear mixed effects regression analyses
  • Discussion and conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
Published online: 20 June 2022
DOI logo
https://doi.org/10.1075/task.21013.eki
References
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D.
(2007) PRAAT doing phonetics by computer (Version 5.2.34) [Computer software]. [URL]
Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., Sanders, T., & De Jong, N. H.
(2014) Native ’um’s elicit prediction of low-frequency referents, but non-native ’um’s do not. Journal of Memory and Language, 75 1, 104–116. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bridgeman, B., Powers, D., Stone, E., & Mollaun, P.
(2012) TOEFL iBT speaking test scores as indicators of oral communicative language proficiency. Language Testing, 29 (1), 91–108. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. D., Hudson, T., Norris, J., & Bonk, W.
(2002) An investigation of second language task-based performance assessments. Technical Report No. 24. University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center.Google Scholar
Butterworth, B.
(1975) Hesitation and semantic planning in speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 4 1, 75–87. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Bygate, M.
(2018) Learning language through task repetition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Clark, H.
(2002) Speaking in time. Speech Communication, 36 (1–2), 5–13. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Clark, H., & Fox Tree, J.
(2002) Using ‘uh’ and ‘um’ in spontaneous speaking. Cognition, 84 1, 73–111. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Davies, A.
(2003) Native speaker: Myth and reality. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
De Johnson, T., O’Connell, D., & Sabin, E.
(1979) Temporal analysis of English and Spanish narratives. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 13 (6), 347–350. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Jong, N.
(2016) Predicting pauses in L1 and L2 speech: The effects of utterance boundaries and word frequency. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 54 (2), 113–132. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2018) Fluency in second language testing: Insights from different disciplines. Language Assessment Quarterly, 15 (3), 237–254. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Jong, N., & Mora, J.
(2019) Does having good articulatory skills lead to more fluent speech in first and second languages? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41 (1), 227–239. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Jong, N., Groenhout, R., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J.
(2015) Second language fluency: speaking style or proficiency? Correcting measures of second language fluency for first language behavior. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36 (2), 223–243. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Jong, N., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A. F., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J.
(2012a) The effect of task complexity on functional adequacy, fluency and lexical diversity in speaking performances of native and non-native speakers. In A. Housen, F. Kuiken, & I. Vedder (Eds.), Dimensions of L2 performance and proficiency. Complexity, accuracy and fluency in SLA (pp. 121–142). John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2012b) Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34 (1), 5–34. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
De Jong, N., Steinel, M., Florijn, A., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J.
(2013) ‘Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language.’ Applied Psycholinguistics 34 (5), 893–916. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Derwing, T., Munro, M., Thomson, R., & Rossiter, M.
(2009) The relationship between L1 fluency and L2 fluency development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31 (4), 533–557. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Duran-Karaoz, Z., & Tavakoli, P.
(2020) Predicting L2 fluency from L1 fluency behavior: The case of L1 Turkish and L2 English speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42 (4), 671–695. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ekiert, M., Lampropoulou, S., Révész, A., & Torgersen, E.
(2018) The effects of task type and L2 proficiency on discourse appropriacy in oral task performance. In N. Taguchi & Y-J. Kim (Eds.), Task-based approaches to assessing pragmatics (pp. 247–264). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R.
(2003) Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Field, J.
(2011) Cognitive validity. In L. Taylor (Ed.), Examining speaking: Research and practice in assessing second language speaking (pp. 65–111). Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Fillmore, C.
(1979) On fluency. In C. Fillmore, D. Kemple, & W. Wang (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 85–101). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Goldman-Eisler, F.
(1968) Psycholinguistics; Experiments in spontaneous speech. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Halenko, N., & Winder, L.
(2021) Examining academic email requests to faculty and developmental change during study abroad. In M. Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. Savi, & N. Halenko (Eds.). Email pragmatics and second language learners (pp. 101–126). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kahng, J.
(2014) Exploring utterance and cognitive fluency of L1 and L2 English speakers: Temporal measures and stimulated recall. Language Learning, 64 (4), 809–854. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kim, H.-J.
(2006) Providing validity evidence for a speaking test using FACETS. Teachers College Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics 6/11. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J.
(2006) Speech production and L2 acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I.
(2014) Rating written performance: What do raters do and why? Language Testing, 31 (3), 329–348. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuiken, & Vedder, I.
(2017) Functional adequacy in L2 writing: Towards a new rating scale. Language Testing, 34 (3), 321–336. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I.
(2018) Assessing functional adequacy of L2 performance in a task-based approach. In N. Taguchi & Y-J. Kim (Eds.), Task-based approaches to assessing pragmatics (pp. 265–286). John Benjamins. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2019) From CAF to CAFFA: Measuring linguistic performance and functional adequacy in task-based language teaching. Plenary speech delivered at Task-Based Language Teaching Conference, Ottawa, Canada.
Kuiken, F., Vedder, I., & Gilabert, R.
(2010) Communicative adequacy and linguistic complexity in L2 writing. In I. Bartning, M. Martin & I. Vedder (Eds.) Communicative proficiency and linguistic development: Intersections between SLA and language testing research (pp. 81–100). Eurosla Monographs Series 1. European Second Language Association.Google Scholar
Lambert, C., & Kormos, J.
(2014) Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in task-based L2 research: Toward more developmentally based measures of second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 35 (5), 607–614. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lambert, C., Kormos, J., & Minn, D.
(2017) Task repetition and second language speech processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39 (1), 167–196. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Lennon, P.
(1990) Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 40(3), 387–417. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Levelt, W.
(1989) Speaking. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Levelt, W., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A.
(1999) A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22 (1), 1–37. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Linacre, M.
(2002) Optimizing rating scale category effectiveness. Journal of Applied Measurement, 3 (1), 85–106. [URL]
Pallotti, G.
(2009) CAF: Defining, refining and differentiating constructs. Applied Linguistics, 30 (4), 590–601. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2019) Assessing tasks: The case of interactional difficulty. Applied Linguistics ( 40 )11, 176–197. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Pollitt, A., & Hutchinson, C.
(1987) Calibrated graded assessment: Rasch partial credit analysis of performance in writing. Language Testing, 4 (1), 72–92. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Purpura, J.
(2004) Assessing grammar. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Rasch, G.
(1960) Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Danish Institute of Educational Research.Google Scholar
Révész, A., Ekiert, M., & Torgersen, E.
(2016) The effects of complexity, accuracy and fluency on communicative adequacy in oral task performance. Applied Linguistics, 37 (6), 828–848. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Riazantseva, A.
(2001) Second language proficiency and pausing: A study of Russian speakers of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23 (4), 497–526. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmid, M., & Beers Fägersten, K.
(2010) Disfluency markers in L1 attrition. Language Learning, 60 (4), 753–791. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Schmidgall, J., & Powers, D. E.
(2021) Predicting communicative effectiveness in the international workplace: Support for TOEIC® Speaking test scores from linguistic laypersons. Language Testing, 38(2), 302–325. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Searle, J.
(1979) Expression and meaning: Studies in the theory of speech acts. Cambridge University Press. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Segalowitz, N.
(2010) Cognitive bases of second language fluency. Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
(2016) Second language fluency and its underlying cognitive and social determinants. IRAL, 54 (2), 79–96. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Skehan, P.
(1998) A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skehan, P., Xiaoyue, B., Quian, L., & Wang, Z.
(2012) The task is not enough: Processing approaches to task-based performance. Language Teaching Research, 16 (2), 170–187. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, S., Kormos, J., & Uchihara, T.
(2021) The relationship between utterance and perceived fluency: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Modern Language Journal, 105 (2), 435–463. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Swerts, M.
(1998) Filled pauses as markers of discourse structure. Journal of Pragmatics, 30 1, 485–496. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tankó, G.
(2005) Into Europe: The writing handbook. Teleki La´szló Foundation.Google Scholar
Tavakoli, P.
(2011) Pausing patterns: Differences between L2 learners and native speakers. ELT Journal, 65 (1), 71–79. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Tavakoli, P., Nakatsuhara, F. & Hunter, A-M.
(2017) Scoring validity of the APTIS speaking test: Investigating fluency across tasks and levels of proficiency. British Council. [URL]
Watanabe, M., Hirose, K., Den, Y., & Minematsu, N.
(2008) Filled pauses as cues to the complexity of upcoming phrases for native and non-native listeners. Speech Communication, 50 1, 81–94. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Wu, J., & Roever, C.
(2021) Proficiency and preference organization in second language Mandarin Chinese refusals. The Modern Language Journal, 105 1, 897–918. DOI logoGoogle Scholar
Young, R.
(2011) Interactional competence in language learning, teaching, and testing. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 426–443). London: Routledge. DOI logoGoogle Scholar