Article outline

• 2.1Historical background
  • 2.1.1The construction era
  • 2.1.2In the Canal Zone and Panama, 1914–1999
  • 2.1.3Present-day West Indian Panamanian identities
• 2.2Sociolinguistic situation
  • 2.2.1Demographics, race and language
  • 2.2.2Recent language policies
  • 2.2.3The French Antillean legacy
• 2.3Previous research on Panamanian varieties
  • 2.3.1Bocas del Toro and Puerto Armuelles
  • 2.3.2Panama City and Colón
• 2.4Towards a description of urban Panamanian English
• Notes