Chapter published in:

The Politics of Multilingualism: Europeanisation, globalisation and linguistic governance
Edited by Peter A. Kraus and François Grin
[Studies in World Language Problems 6] 2018
► pp. 19–37

Chapter 2. The politics of multilingualism in Canada

A neo-institutional approach

Linda Cardinal | University of Ottawa

Rémi Léger | Simon Fraser University

Language and linguistic diversity are eminently political in Canada. The country has two official languages, English and French, an official multiculturalism policy that encourages the retention and use of non-official languages, and basic measures for the promotion of aboriginal languages. This chapter raises the important question of language policy choices in Canada. How and why Canada made certain language policy choices – for example, privileging English and French over other languages, including aboriginal languages – and avoided others. In answering this question, we rely on two key concepts from political science: “state tradition” and “language regime”. Taken together, these two concepts serve as the basis for a neo-institutional approach for the study of the politics of multilingualism.

Keywords: multilingualism, language regime, Canada, state traditions, official languages

Published online: 10 September 2018
https://doi.org/10.1075/wlp.6.02car

References

Aunger, Edmund

(2005) “One Language and One Nationality: The Forcible Constitution of a Unilingual Province in a Bilingual Country, 1870–2005”, in: Richard Connors and John Law (eds), Forging Alberta’s Constitutional Framework, 1670–2005, pp. 3–135. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press.

Berger, Carl

(1970) The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism, 1867–1914. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Bill S-212

(2015) An Act for the Advancement of Aboriginal Languages of Canada and to Recognize and Respect Aboriginal Languages, First Session. Forty-Second Parliament, Ottawa, December 3, available at: http://www.parl.gc.ca/legisinfo/BillDetails.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1&billId=8064056, last accessed 5 June 2016.

Bill S-222

(2015) An Act for the Promotion and Advancement of Canada’s Linguistic Plurality, First Session. Forty-Second Parliament, Ottawa, December 3, available at: http://www.parl.gc.ca/legisinfo/BillDetails.aspx?billId=8165502&Language=E&Mode=1, last accessed 5 June 2016.

British Columbia

(2004) Language Education Policy, available at: http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/administration/legislation-policy/public-schools/language-education-policy, last accessed 25 May 2016.

Brodie, Ian

(2001) “Interest Group Litigation and the Embedded State: Canada’s Court Challenges Program”, Canadian Journal of Political Science, 34 (2): 357–376.

Calvet, Louis-Jean

(1999) Pour une écologie des langues du monde. Paris: Plon.

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

(1982) Available at: http://laws lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/Const_index.html.

Canadian Heritage

(2015) Evaluation of the Aboriginal Languages Initiative, 2009–2010 to 2013–14, Ottawa: Government of Canada, available at: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2016/pch/CH7-24-2015-eng.pdf, last accessed 2 June 2016.

Cardinal, Linda

(2015) “State Tradition and Language Regime in Canada”, in: Linda Cardinal and Selma Sonntag (eds), State Traditions and Language Regimes, pp. 29–43. Montreal-Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

(2000) “Le pouvoir exécutif et la judiciarisation de la politique au Canada: une étude du Programme de contestation judiciaire”, Politique et Sociétés, 19 (2–3): 43–64.

Cardinal, Linda, Helaina Gaspard and Rémi Léger

(2015) “The Politics of Language Roadmaps in Canada: Understanding the Conservative Government’s Approach to Official Languages”, Canadian Journal of Political Science, 48 (3): 577–599.

Cardinal, Linda, and Selma Sonntag

(2015a) State Traditions and Language Regimes. Montreal-Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

(2015b) “Traditions étatiques et régimes linguistiques: comment et pourquoi s’opèrent les choix de politiques linguistiques?”, Revue internationale de politique comparée, 22 (1): 115–131.

Cardinal, Linda, and Martin Normand

(2013) “Distinct Accents: The Language Regimes of Ontario and Quebec”, in: Jean-François Savard, Louis Côté and Alexandre Brassard (eds), Quebec-Ontario Relations, pp. 131–158. Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec.

Cardinal, Linda, and Rémi Léger

(2016) “L’avenir des francophones hors Québec et la décision Caron c Albert”, Options politiques, 16 December, available at: http://policyoptions.irpp.org/fr/magazines/december-2015/lavenir-des-minorites-francophones-ladecision-caron-c-alberta.

Citizenship and Immigration Canada

(2011) Inter-Action: Canada’s New Multiculturalism Grants & Contributions Program, Ottawa: Government of Canada, available at: http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/multi-report2011/part3.asp, last accessed 2 June 2016).

City of Richmond

(2015) “Sign/Business Licence Inspector”, available at: www.richmond.ca/employment, last accessed 25 November 2015.

Cummins, Jim

(1992) “Heritage Language Teaching in Canadian Schools”, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 24 (3): 281–286.

Dagenais, Diane

(2013) “Multilingualism in Canada: Policy and Education in Applied Linguistics Research”, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 33: 286–301.

Delisle, Jean

(2009) “Cinquante ans d’interprétation parlementaire”, Revue parlementaire canadienne, 32 (2): 26–31.

Doucet, Michel

(1995) Le discours confisqué. Moncton: Éditions d’Acadie.

Duff, Patricia

(2008) “Heritage Language Education in Canada”, in: Donna Britton, Olga Kagan and Susan Baukus (eds), Heritage Language Education: A New Field Emerging, pp. 71–90. New York: Routledge.

Edward, John

(1998) Language in Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

European Commission

(2004) Promoting Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity: An Action Plan 2004–2006, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:c11068, last accessed 5 June 2016.

European Union

(1992) European Charter on Regional and Minority Languages.

First Peoples’ Cultural Council

(2014) Report on the Status of B.C. First Nations Languages 2014. Second Edition. Brentwood Bay: First Peoples’ Cultural Council.

Grin, François

(2010) “Why Multilingualism is Affordable”, Seminar on language, society and politics in Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, 4 May, Revised version, August 2010, available at: https://www.unige.ch/traduction-interpretation/recherches/groupes/elf/files/5314/5865/9208/elfwp6.pdf, last accessed 4 June 2014.

(2008) “Diversité des langues: du bilan géopolitique à la politique linguistique”, Journée des langues de la Chancellerie fédérale , Berne, 11 septembre 2008, version révisée décembre 2008, available at: https://www.unige.ch/traduction-interpretation/recherches/groupes/elf/files/4414/5865/9207/elfwp8.pdf, last accessed 4 June 2014).

Guardado, Martin

(2012) “Toward a Critical Multilingualism in Canadian Classrooms: Making Local Inroads into a Cosmopolitan Identity”, TESL Canada Journal 30 (1): 151–165.

Hamel, Rainer Enrique

(2010) “L’aménagement linguistique et la globalisation des langues du monde”, Télescope, 16 (3): 1–22.

Haque, Eve, and Donna Patrick

(2015) “Indigenous Languages and the Racial Hierarchisation of Language Policy in Canada”, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 36 (1): 27–41.

Hélie, Michel Y.

(2009) “Michel Bastarache’s Language Rights Legacy”, Supreme Court Law Review, 47 (1): 377–408.

Jostes, Brigitte

(2007) “Union européenne et apprentissage des langues”, in: Michael Werner (ed.), Politiques et usages de la langue en Europe, pp. 157–184. Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’Homme.

Kachru, Braj

(1990) The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions and Models of Non-native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Kraus, Peter A.

(2008) A Union of Diversity: Language, Identity and Polity-Building in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kymlicka, Will

(2007) Multicultural Odysseys: Navigating the New International Politics of Diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Léger, Rémi

(2015) “Opinion: B.C. Has No Official Language”, Vancouver Sun, 20 March, available at: http://www.vancouversun.com/life/Opinion+official+language/10907405/story.html, last accessed 28 March 2016.

(2013) “La nouvelle gouvernance des langues officielles: entre exigences et circonstances”, Canadian Public Administration, 56 (3): 414–432.

Leitch, David

(2006) “Canada’s Native Languages: The Right of First Nations to Educate their Children in their Own Language,” Constitutional Forum, 15 (3): 107–120.

McRae, Kenneth

(1975) “The Principle of Territoriality and the Principle of Personality in Multilingual States”, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, (4): 33–54.

Martel, Marcel, and Martin Pâquet

(2012) Speaking up: A History of Language and Politics in Canada and Quebec. Toronto: Between the Lines.

May, Stephen

(2001) Language and Minority Rights: Ethnicity, Nationalism and the Politics of Language. London-New York: Longman.

Nettle, Daniel, and Suzanne Romaine

(2000) Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World’s Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Normand, Martin

(2013) “De l’arène politique à l’arène juridique: Les communautés francophones minoritaires au Canada et la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés”, in: François Rocher and Benoît Pelletier (eds), Le nouvel ordre constitutionnel canadien: Du rapatriement de 1982 à nos jours, pp. 179–203. Montreal: Presses de l’Université du Québec à Montréal.

Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages (OCOL)

(2012) Language Rights, available at: http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca, last accessed 30 May 2015.

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

(1999) The Lund Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National Minorities in Public Life. OSCE: Vienna.

Phillipson, Robert

(2003) English-Only Europe? London: Routledge.

Poliquin, Gabriel

(2013) “La protection d’une vitalité fragile: les droits linguistiques autochtones en vertu de l’article 35”, McGill Law Journal, 58 (3): 573–605.

Smith, David E.

(2010) Federalism and the Constitution of Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto.

Statistics Canada

(2012a) Linguistic Characteristics of Canadians. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, available at: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/98-314-x/98-314-x2011001-eng.pdf, last accessed 30 May 2016.

(2012b) Immigrant Languages in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, available at: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/98-314-x/98-314-x2011003_2-eng.pdf, last accessed 30 May 2016.

(2011a) Focus on Geography Series, 2011 Census: Province of New Brunswick. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, available at: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-pr-eng.cfm?Lang=Eng&GC=13, last accessed 30 May 2016.

(2011b) Focus on Geography Series, 2011 Census: Province of Ontario. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, available at: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-pr-eng.cfm?Lang=eng&GC=35, last accessed 30 May 2016.

Swaan, Abram de

(2001) Words of the World: The Global Language System. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada

(2015) Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action. Winnipeg: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2012, available at: www.trc.ca, last accessed 3 June 2016.

Turgeon, Luc, and Alain G. Gagnon

(2013) “The Politics of Representative Bureaucracy in Multilingual Federations: A Comparison of Belgium, Canada and Switzerland”, Regional and Federal Studies, 23 (4): 407–425.

United Nations

(1992) Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic and Linguistic Minority, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/GuideMinoritiesDeclarationen.pdf, last accessed 5 June 2016.

2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf, last accessed 5 June 2016.

Van Parijs, Philippe

(2004) “Europe’s Linguistic Challenges”, Archives européennes de sociologie, XLV (1): 113–154.

Vipond, Robert

(1991) Liberty and Community and the Failure of the CanadianConstitution. New York: State University of New York Press.

www.ethnologue.com.

www.fpcc.ca.

Court cases

Arsenault-Cameron v. Prince-Edward Island [2000] 1 SCR 3.

Bilodeau v. A.G. (Man.) [1986] 1 S.C.R. 449.

DesRochers c. Canada (Industrie) 2009 CSC 8, [2009] 1 R.C.S. 194.

MacDonald v. City of Montreal [1986] 1 SCR 460.

Mahe v. Alberta [1990] 1 SCR 342.

R. v. Beaulac [1999] 1 SCR 768.

Société des Acadiens et als v. Association of Parents for Fairness in Education [1986] 1 SCR 549.