Chapter 4.Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase
231
4.1Overview of nominals in discourse
232
4.1.1Use of nominals in discourse
232
4.1.1.1Density and types of nominal elements
232
4.1.1.2The role of nominal elements in discourse
233
4.1.1.3Establishing reference
234
4.1.1.4Chains of reference
236
4.1.2Pronouns v. full noun phrases
237
4.1.3The forms of anaphoric expressions
239
4.1.4Forms of anaphoric expression in relation to distance
240
4.2The basic structure of noun-headed phrases
242
4.3Types of nouns
243
4.3.1Use of countable nouns in Text samples
244
4.3.2Use of uncountable nouns in Text samples
244
4.3.2.1Countable and uncountable uses of nouns
245
4.3.2.2Plural uncountables
246
4.3.3Proper nouns
246
4.3.3.1Initial capitals
247
4.3.3.2Proper nouns regularly occurring with the definite article
247
4.3.3.3Proper nouns functioning as common nouns
248
4.3.4Collective nouns
249
4.3.4.1Collocations of quantifying collectives
250
4.3.5Unit nouns
251
4.3.5.1Collocations of unit nouns
252
4.3.6Quantifying nouns
253
4.3.6.1Collocations of types of quantifying nouns
253
4.3.6.2Pair v. couple
256
4.3.7Species nouns
256
4.3.7.1Species nouns: Distribution
257
4.3.8Noun v. determiner
258
4.4Determiners
259
4.4.1The articles
260
4.4.1.1The indefinite article
260
4.4.1.2The zero article
262
4.4.1.3The definite article
264
4.4.1.4Generic reference
266
4.4.1.5Reference patterns of definite noun phrases
267
4.4.1.6Definite and indefinite articles: Distribution
268
4.4.1.7Definite and indefinite articles in relation to syntactic role
270
4.4.1.8Definite determiners: Distribution
271
4.4.2Possessive determiners
272
4.4.2.1Possessive determiners: Distribution
272
4.4.3Demonstrative determiners
273
4.4.3.1Demonstrative determiners: Distribution
275
4.4.4Quantifiers
276
4.4.4.1Quantifiers: Distribution
278
4.4.5Numerals
279
4.4.5.1Numerals across the registers
280
4.4.6Semi-determiners
281
4.4.6.1Other uses of the semi-determiners
282
4.4.6.2Semi-determiners: Distribution
283
4.4.7
wh-determiners
284
4.4.8Determiner v. pronoun
285
4.5Number
285
4.5.1Regular plurals
285
4.5.1.1Plurals of words ending in -o
286
4.5.2Irregular plurals
286
4.5.3Latin and Greek plurals
287
4.5.4Zero plurals
289
4.5.5Plural-only nouns and nouns in -S
290
4.5.6Singular v. plural nouns: Distribution
291
4.6Case
292
4.6.1The form of the genitive
293
4.6.1.1Genitive v. common case
294
4.6.2The frequency of genitive case forms
294
4.6.3Specifying genitives
294
4.6.4Classifying genitives
295
4.6.4.1Classifying genitives: Use
296
4.6.5Genitives of time
296
4.6.6Genitives of measure
296
4.6.7Elliptic genitives
297
4.6.8Other independent genitives
298
4.6.8.1Independent genitives unsupported by the linguistic context
298
4.6.9Group genitives
298
4.6.10The double genitive
299
4.6.11Density of genitives
300
4.6.12Choice between s-genitives and of-phrases
301
4.6.12.1
S-genitives and of-phrases overall
302
4.6.12.2
S-genitives and of-phrases and the dependent noun
303
4.6.12.3Meanings of s-genitives and of-phrases
304
4.6.12.4
S-genitives and of-phrases and length
305
4.6.12.5
S-genitives and of-phrases and information status
306
4.6.12.6
S-genitives and of-phrases in collocations
306
4.6.12.7Summary of choice between s-genitives and of-phrases
307
4.6.13Choice between elliptic genitives and of-constructions
307
4.6.13.1Elliptic genitives v. of-constructions: Distribution
308
4.6.14Choice between the double genitive and related constructions
308
4.6.14.1The double genitive v. corresponding constructions with possessive pronouns
308
4.6.14.2The double genitive v. ordinary of-phrases
310
4.7Gender
312
4.7.1Lexical expression of gender
312
4.7.1.1Words for masculine/feminine gender
313
4.7.1.2Lexical means of expressing dual gender reference
315
4.7.2Gender-specific v. dual gender pronoun reference
316
4.7.2.1Grammatical means for dual gender reference
317
4.7.3Personal v. non-personal reference with pronouns
317
4.8Noun formation
318
4.8.1Derived nouns
318
4.8.1.1Derivational prefixes used to form new nouns
319
4.8.1.2Some common derivational suffix patterns
320
4.8.1.3Frequency of common noun derivational suffixes
322
4.8.1.4Productivity of common noun derivations
322
4.8.2Formation of nouns through compounding
325
4.8.2.1Noun compounds in conversation and news in AmE
325
4.9The role of pronouns in discourse
327
4.10Personal pronouns
327
4.10.1Specific reference
328
4.10.1.1Problems in the use of first person plural pronouns
328
4.10.1.2Problems in the use of second person pronouns
329
4.10.1.3Problems in the use of third person pronouns
330
4.10.2Referring to people in general
330
4.10.3Special problems with collective nouns
331
4.10.4Special uses of it
331
4.10.5Personal pronouns: Distribution
332
4.10.6Nominative v. accusative forms of personal pronouns
334
4.10.6.1Pronoun choice after forms of be
334
4.10.6.2Pronoun choice after as and than
335
4.10.6.3Pronoun choice in coordinated noun phrases
336
4.10.6.4Pronoun choice in peripheral and non-integrated noun phrases
338
4.10.6.5Summary of factors affecting pronoun case choice
338
4.11Possessive pronouns
339
4.11.1The type a friend of mine
340
4.11.2Possessive pronouns: Distribution
340
4.12Reflexive pronouns
341
4.12.1Reflexive pronouns: Distribution
343
4.12.2Emphatic reflexive pronouns
344
4.13Reciprocal pronouns
345
4.13.1Reciprocal pronouns: Distribution
345
4.14Demonstrative pronouns
346
4.14.1Demonstrative pronouns: Distribution
347
4.14.2
This/these in academic prose
348
4.14.3
Those with postmodifying phrases or clauses
348
4.14.4The demonstrative pronoun that in conversation
348
4.14.5
That in general
349
4.15Indefinite pronouns
350
4.15.1Indefinite pronouns: Distribution
351
4.15.2The pronoun one
351
4.15.2.1The pronoun one: Distribution
352
4.16Other pronouns
353
Chapter 5.Verbs
355
5.1Major verb functions and classes
356
5.1.1Frequency of lexical, modal, and primary auxiliary verbs
356
5.1.2Distribution of lexical verbs and copula be across registers
357
5.2Single-word lexical verbs
359
5.2.1Classification of verbs into semantic domains
359
5.2.1.1Major semantic domains of single-word verbs
360
5.2.1.2Distribution of semantic domains
363
5.2.1.3Semantic domains of verbs
364
5.2.2Most common lexical verbs
371
5.2.2.1Overall use of the most common lexical verbs
371
5.2.2.2Most common verbs in each register
373
5.2.3Verbs with animate and inanimate subjects
378
5.2.4Valency patterns for single-word lexical verbs
380
5.2.4.1Valencies of common verbs across semantic domains
382
5.2.4.2Variation in verb valency patterns
384
5.2.4.3Intransitive and monotransitive patterns
384
5.2.4.4Intransitive, monotransitive, and complex transitive patterns
386
5.2.4.5Intransitive, monotransitive, and ditransitive patterns
387
5.2.4.6Monotransitive and ditransitive but not intransitive patterns
388
5.2.4.7Verbs taking almost all patterns
389
5.2.4.8General patterns
391
5.2.5Regular lexical verb inflections
392
5.2.5.1Consonant doubling of regularly inflected verbs
393
5.2.5.2Doubling of base-final / followed by -ed across dialects
393
5.2.6Irregular lexical verb inflections
393
5.2.6.1Classes of irregular verbs
394
5.2.6.2Regular and irregular forms
395
5.2.6.3
Got and gotten
398
5.2.7Verb derivation
399
5.2.7.1Most frequent verb derivational affixes
399
5.2.7.2Productivity of verb derivational affixes
400
5.3Multi-word lexical verbs
403
5.3.1Features distinguishing multi-word verb combinations
403
5.3.1.1Multi-word combinations functioning as different structural categories
405
5.3.2Phrasal verbs
407
5.3.2.1Semantic domains of phrasal verbs
407
5.3.2.2Register distribution of phrasal verbs
408
5.3.2.3The most common phrasal verbs
408
5.3.2.4Productivity of particular verbs and adverbial particles
412
5.3.3Prepositional verbs
413
5.3.3.1Semantic domains of prepositional verbs
414
5.3.3.2Register distribution of prepositional verbs
414
5.3.3.3The most common prepositional verbs
415
5.3.3.4Productivity of particular verbs and prepositions
421
5.3.4Phrasal-prepositional verbs
422
5.3.4.1Register distribution of phrasal-prepositional verbs
422
5.3.4.2The most common phrasal-prepositional verbs
423
5.3.5Other multi-word verb constructions
425
5.4Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs
426
5.4.1Be
426
5.4.2Have
427
5.4.3Do
428
5.4.3.1Main verb do in idiomatic expressions
428
5.4.3.2
Do as pro-verb
428
5.4.3.3Register distribution of main verb and pro-verb do
429
5.4.3.4Auxiliary do in emphatic function
430
5.4.3.5Lexical associations of emphatic do
431
5.4.3.6Auxiliary do-support in negatives and interrogatives
432
5.5Copular verbs
433
5.5.1Verbs functioning as copulas
434
5.5.2Complements of copular verbs
434
5.5.3Register distribution of copular verbs and common predicative adjectives
435
5.5.3.1Current (non-sensory) copular verbs
437
5.5.3.2Sensory copular verbs
439
5.5.3.3Resulting copular verbs
441
5.5.4Valency patterns of the copulas be, seem, and appear
443
5.5.4.1Complement types with be, seem, and appear
444
5.5.4.2Subject and complement types with be
446
Chapter 6.Variation in the verb phrase: Tense, aspect, voice, and modality
449
6.1Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase
450
6.2Tense
451
6.2.1Basic tense and time distinctions
451
6.2.1.1Simple present tense marking past or future time
452
6.2.1.2Past tense in reported speech
453
6.2.1.3The marking of future time
454
6.2.2Register distribution of tense and modality
454
6.2.3Lexical associations of present and past tense
457
6.3Aspect
458
6.3.1Perfect and progressive aspect across registers and dialects
459
6.3.1.1Register distribution of perfect and progressive aspect
459
6.3.1.2Perfect and progressive aspect across dialects
460
6.3.2Perfect aspect
461
6.3.2.1Lexical associations of present perfect aspect
462
6.3.2.2Present perfect forms of get and have across dialects
464
6.3.2.3Present perfect aspect v. simple past tense
465
6.3.2.4Lexical associations of past perfect aspect
466
6.3.2.5Past perfect aspect v. simple past tense
467
6.3.3Progressive aspect
469
6.3.3.1Lexical associations of progressive aspect
469
6.4Active and passive voice
473
6.4.1Register distribution of active and passive voice
474
6.4.2Lexical associations of the passive
476
6.4.2.1Verbs that commonly occur in the passive
476
6.4.2.2Verbs common with the get passive
479
6.4.2.3Verbs uncommon in the passive
480
6.5Complex combinations of aspect and voice
481
6.6Modals and semi-modals
482
6.6.1Distribution of modals and semi-modals
484
6.6.2Individual modals/semi-modals across registers and dialects
485
6.6.3Lexical associations of modality
489
6.6.4Extrinsic v. intrinsic uses of individual modals
489
6.6.4.1The permission/possibility/ability modals
489
6.6.4.2The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals
492
6.6.4.3The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals
493
6.7Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice
495
6.8Sequences of modals and semi-modals
499
Chapter 7.Adjectives and adverbs
501
7.1Overview
502
7.1.1Use of adjectives and adverbs
502
7.2Defining characteristics of adjectives
503
7.2.1Attributive and predicative adjectives across registers
504
7.2.2Central and peripheral adjectives
505
7.2.3Adjectives strongly associated with attributive or predicative position
506
7.3Semantic grouping of adjectives
506
7.4Attributive adjectives
508
7.4.1Semantic domains of attributive adjectives
508
7.4.2Most common attributive adjectives
509
7.5Predicative adjectives
513
7.5.1Most common predicative adjectives
514
7.6Adjectives in other syntactic roles
516
7.6.1Postposed adjectives
516
7.6.2Adjectives as noun phrase heads
517
7.6.3Adjectives with a clause linking function
518
7.6.4Adjectives as exclamations
518
7.6.5Adjectives as detached predicatives
518
7.7Comparative and superlative degree
519
7.7.1Gradable adjectives with -er and -est
519
7.7.2Inflectional v. phrasal comparison
520
7.7.3Inflectional comparison across registers
521
7.7.4Phrasal comparison with more and most
522
7.7.5Doubly marked comparatives and superlatives
523
7.7.6Adjectives with superlative or absolute meanings
523
7.8Comparative clauses and other degree complements
524
7.8.1Comparative constructions across registers
525
7.9Formation of adjectives
527
7.9.1Participial adjectives
527
7.9.1.1Common participial adjectives
527
7.9.2Derived adjectives
527
7.9.2.1Common adjectives with derivational suffixes
528
7.9.3Adjectival compounds
530
7.9.3.1Distribution of adjectival compounds
532
7.10Adjectives in combination
533
7.10.1Repeated comparative adjectives
533
7.10.2The intensifiers good and and nice and
534
7.11Overview of adverbs
535
7.12The form of adverbs
536
7.12.1Formation of adverbs
536
7.12.1.1Adverb forms
537
7.12.2Adverbs and adjectives with the same form
539
7.12.2.1Good and real as adverbs
540
7.12.3Comparative and superlative forms
541
7.13Syntactic roles of adverbs
542
7.13.1Adverbs modifying adjectives
542
7.13.1.1Adverbs modifying adjectives in conversation and academic prose
542
7.13.2Adverbs modifying other adverbs
543
7.13.2.1Adverbs modifying adverbs in conversation and academic prose
543
7.13.3Adverbs modifying other elements
545
7.13.4Adverbs as complements of prepositions
545
7.13.5Adverbs as clause elements: Adverbials
546
7.13.6Adverbs with degree complements
546
7.13.7Adverbs standing alone
547
7.14Semantic categories of adverbs
548
7.14.1Importance of context in the semantics of adverbs
548
7.14.2Description of semantic categories
549
7.14.2.1Place
549
7.14.2.2Time
549
7.14.2.3Manner
550
7.14.2.4Degree
551
7.14.2.5Additive/restrictive
553
7.14.2.6Stance
553
7.14.2.7Linking
555
7.14.2.8Other meanings
556
7.14.3Semantic domains of adverbs in conversation and academic prose
556
7.15Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers
560
7.15.1Amplifiers in conversation and academic prose
560
7.15.2Degree modifiers other than amplifiers in conversation and academic prose
562