Agreement in Language Contact
Gender development in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
| TU Dortmund University
Gender in English changed dramatically from the elaborate system found in Old English to the very simple he/she/it-alternation in use from (late) Middle English onwards. While either system is well described and understood, the change from one to the other is anything but: more than 120 years of research into the matter provided no prevailing opinion – let alone a consensus – regarding how it proceeded or why it occurred. The present study is the first to address this issue in the context of language contact with Old Norse, assessing this contact influence in relation to both language-formal and semantico-cognitive factors. This empirical, functional account uses rigorous, innovative methodology, interdisciplinary evidence, and well-established models of synchronic variation in diachronic application to draw a fine-grained picture of the variation, change, and loss of gender from Old to Middle English and its underlying mainsprings. The resulting plausible and parsimonious explanations will prove relevant to students and scholars of historical linguistics, morpho-syntax, language variation and change, or language contact, to name but a few.
[Studies in Language Companion Series, 208] 2019. xxi, 351 pp.
Publishing status: Available
© John Benjamins
Table of Contents
|
List of figures
|
ix–xiii
|
|
List of tables
|
xv
|
|
List of examples
|
xvii–xix
|
|
List of abbreviations
|
xxi
|
|
Chapter 1. Introduction
|
1–3
|
|
Chapter 2. Aims and objectives
|
5–8
|
|
Chapter 3. Gender
|
9–77
|
|
Chapter 4. Viking influence in England
|
79–117
|
|
Chapter 5. Methodology
|
119–161
|
|
Chapter 6. Analysis
|
163–250
|
|
Chapter 7. Discussion
|
251–323
|
|
Chapter 8. Conclusion and outlook
|
325–329
|
|
References
|
331–349
|
|
Index
|
351
|
References
References
Abrams, Lesley
2000 Conversion and assimilation. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 135–153.
Allen, Cynthia L.
1995 Case Marking and Reanalysis. Grammatical Relations from Old to Early Modern English. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Arbman, Holger
1969 The Vikings. New York NY: Frederick A. Praeger.
Ashby, Steven P.
2013 Making a good comb: Mercantile identity in 9th- to 11th-Century England. In Hadley & ten Harkel (eds), 193–208.
Audring, Jenny
2009 Reinventing Pronoun Gender. Utrecht: LOT.
Ausbüttel, Erich
1904 Das persönliche Geschlecht unpersönlicher Substantiva einschließlich Tiernamen im Mittelenglischen. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Backhaus, Klaus, Erichson, Bernd, Plinke, Wulff & Weiber, Rolf
2008 Multivariate Analysemethoden, 12th edn. Berlin: Springer.
Backhouse, Janet
2004 Aldred (fl. c.970). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/312?docPos=1 (19 August 2013).
Baker, Peter S.
(ed.) 2000 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition, MS F. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
Barnes, Michael P.
2012 Runes: A Handbook. Woodbridge: Boydell.
Baron, Naomi S.
1971 A reanalysis of English grammatical gender. Lingua 27: 113–140. 
Barrow, G. W. S.
2004 Margaret [St Margaret] (d. 1093). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18044 (10 June 2011).
Barrow, Julia
2000 Survival and mutation. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 155–176.
Bartlett, Frederic C.
1932[1954] Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge: CUP.
Bately, Janet
1970 King Alfred and the Old English translation of Orosius. Anglia 88: 433–460.
1980a The Old English Orosius. Oxford: OUP.
1980b The compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 60 BC to AD 890: Vocabulary as evidence. Proceedings of the British Academy 64: 93–129.
1986 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition, MS A. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
Bates, Elizabeth, Devescovi, Antonella, Hernandez, Arturo & Pizzamiglio, Luigi
1996 Gender priming in Italian. Perception & Psychophysics 58(7): 992–1004.
Baugh, Albert C. & Cable, Thomas
1978 A History of the English Language, 3rd edn. London: Routledge.
2002 A History of the English Language, 5th edn. London: Routledge.
Berg, Thomas
1992 Prelexical and postlexical features in language production. Applied Psycholinguistics 13: 199–235.
1998 Linguistic Structure and Change. Oxford: OUP.
2013 Anglistische Sprachwissenschaft. München: UTB/Fink.
Bergen, Benjamin & Binsted, Kim
2004 To awaken a sleeping giant. Blending and metaphor in editorial cartoons after September 11. In Language, Culture, and Mind, Michel Achard & Suzanne Kemmer (eds). Stanford CA: CSLI.
Bergmann, Rolf & Nerius, Dieter
1997 Die Entwicklung der Großschreibung im Deutschen von 1500 bis 1700. Heidelberg: Winter.
Bergs, Alexander & Skaffari, Janne
2007 Invitation to the Peterborough Chronicle and its language. In The Language of the Peterborough Chronicle, Alexander Bergs & Janne Skaffari (eds). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
van Berkum, Jos A.
1996 The Psycholinguistics of Grammatical Gender. Nijmegen: Nijmegen University Press.
Berlin, Brent & Kay, Paul
1969 Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.
BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures)
2006 The International System of Units, 8th edn. http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf (4 June 2012).
Björkman, Erik
1900 Scandinavian Loan-words in Middle English. Halle: Niemeyer.
Blair, John
2004 Spearhafoc (fl. 1047–1051). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/49416 (20 May 2013).
Blake, Barry J.
1994 Case. Cambridge: CUP.
Blake, Norman F.
1992 Introduction. In The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. II: 1066–1476, Norman F. Blake (ed.). Cambridge: CUP.
Blinkhorn, Paul
2013 No pots please, we’re Vikings: Pottery in the southern Danelaw, 850–1000. In Hadley & ten Harkel (eds), 157–171.
Bloomfield, Leonard
1933 Language. New York NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Boas, Franz
1940 Race, Language and Culture. New York NY: The Free Press.
Bohn, Robert
2006 Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins. München: Beck.
Bosworth, Joseph & Toller, Thomas N.
1898/1921 An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bowden, Georgina R., Balaresque, Patricia, King, Turi E., Hansen, Ziff, Lee, Andrew C., Pergl-Wilson, Giles, Hurley, Emma, Roberts, Stephen J., Waite, Patrick, Jesch, Judith, Jones, Abigail L., Thomas, Mark G., Harding, Stephen E. & Jobling, Mark A.
2008 Excavating past population structures by surname-based sampling: The genetic legacy of the Vikings in Northwest England. Molecular Biology and Evolution 25(2): 301–309.
Braunmüller, Kurt
1982 Syntaxtypologische Studien zum Germanischen. Tübingen: Narr.
2000 Semikommunikation in phatischen Dialogen. In Text/Diskurs, Oralität/Literalität unter dem Aspekt mehrsprachiger Kommunikation. Beiträge zum Workshop‚ Methodologie und Datenanalyse‘ [Arbeiten zur Mehrsprachigkeit/Working Papers on Multilingualism, Folge B, Nr. 11], Bernd Meyer & Notis Toufexis (eds), 101–114. Hamburg: Universität Hamburg.
2001 Semicommunication and accommodation: Observations from the linguistic situation in Scandinavia. In Arbeiten zur Mehrsprachigkeit [Working Papers on Multilingualism, Folge B, Nr. 17], Kristin Bührig, Gisella Ferraresi, Natascha Müller, Jochen Rehbein & Sophia Vulgari (eds). Hamburg: Universität Hamburg.
Brett, Martin
1981 John of Worcester and his contemporaries. In The Writing of History in the Middle Ages. Essays Presented to Richard William Southern, Ralph H. C. Davis & John Michael Wallace-Hadrill (eds). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bright, James W.
1912 An Anglo-Saxon Reader and Grammar. London: Allen and Unwin.
Brinegar, John H.
2002 Hagiographic, homiletic, and didactic literature. In A Companion to Old and Middle English Literature, Laura C. Lambdin & Robert T. Lambdin (eds.), 277–298. Westport CT: Greenwood.
Brugmann, Karl
1891 Zur Frage der Entstehung des grammatischen Geschlechtes. Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 15: 523–531.
Brooks, Nicholas
1984 The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Studies in the Early History of Britain. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Cameron, Kenneth
1969 English Place Names. London: Methuen.
1971 Scandinavian settlement in the territory of the Five Boroughs: The place-name evidence Part III, the Grimston Hybrids. In England before the Conquest, Peter Clemoes & Kathleen Hughes (eds), 147–163. Cambridge: CUP.
Campbell, Alistair
1959 Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Campbell, James
1993 England, c. 991. In ‘The Battle of Maldon’: Fiction and Fact, Janet Cooper (ed.), 1–17. London: Hambledon Press.
Capelli, Cristian, Redhead, Nicola, Abernethy, Julia K., Gratrix, Fiona, Wilson, James F., Moen, Torolf, Hervig, Tor, Richards, Martin, Stumpf, Michael P. H., Underhill, Peter A., Bradshaw, Paul, Shaha, Alom, Thomas, Mark G., Bradman, Neal & Goldstein, David B.
2003 A Y chromosome census of the British Isles. Current Biology 13: 979–984.
Carello, Claudia, Lukatela, Georgije & Turvey, Michael T.
1988 Rapid naming is affected by association but not by syntax. Memory & Cognition 16(3): 187–195.
Cavill, Paul, Harding, Stephen E. & Jesch, Judith
2000 Wirral and its Viking heritage. Nottingham: English Place-Name Society.
Christen, Helen
1998 Die Mutti oder das Mutti, die Rita oder das Rita? Über Besonderheiten der Genuszuweisung bei Personen- und Verwandtschaftsnamen in schweizerdeutschen Dialekten. In Ist mir getroumet mîn leben? Vom Träumen und vom Anderssein. Festschrift für Karl-Ernst Geith zum 65. Geburtstag [Göppinger Arbeiten zur Germanistik; Bd. 632], André Snyder, Claudia Bartholemy-Teusch, Barbara Fleith & René Wetzel (eds), 267–281. Göppingen: Kümmerle.
Clark, Cecily
1957 Gender in the Peterborough Chronicle. English Studies 38: 109–115.
(ed.) 1970 The Peterborough Chronicle, 1070–1154, 2nd edn. Oxford: OUP.
Cleasby, Richard & Vigfússon, Guþbrandur
1874 An Icelandic-English Dictionary: Based on the Ms. Collections of the Late Richard Cleasby. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Clemoes, Peter & Hughes, Kathleen
(eds) 1971 England before the Conquest. Cambridge: CUP.
Comrie, Bernard
1981 Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Conner, Patrick W.
1996 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A Collaborative Edition. The Abingon Chronicle, A.D. 956–1066 (MS. C, With Reference To BDE). Cambridge: D. S. Brewer.
Corbett, Greville G.
1979 The agreement hierarchy. Journal of Linguistics 15: 203–224.
1991 Gender. Cambridge: CUP.
2000 Number. Cambridge: CUP.
2003 Agreement: Canonical instances and the extent of the phenomenon. In Topics in Morphology: Selected papers from the Third Mediterranean Morphology Meeting (Barcelona, September 20–22, 2001), Geert Booij, Janet DeCesaris, Angela Ralli & Sergio Scalise (eds), 109–128. Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra.
2005 The canonical approach in typology. In Linguistic Diversity and Language Theories [Studies in Language Companion Series 72], Zygmunt Frajzyngier, Adam Hodges & David S. Rood (eds), 25–49. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
2007 Canonical typology, suppletion and possible words. Language 83: 8–42.
2011 Number of genders. In The World Atlas of Language Structures Online, Matthew S. Dryer & Martin Haspelmath (eds.). Munich: Max Planck Digital Library. http://wals.info/feature/30A (17 May 2012).
Crawford, Barbara E.
2003 The Vikings. In Davies (ed.), 14–71.
Crist, Sean
Croft, William
1990 Typology and Universals. Cambridge: CUP.
2001 Radical Construction Grammar. Oxford: OUP.
2003 Typology and Universals, 2nd edn. Cambridge: CUP.
Cubbin, G. P.
1996 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition, MS D. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
Curzan, Anne
2003 Gender Shifts in the History of English. Cambridge: CUP.
Dahl, Östen
2000 Animacy and the notion of semantic gender. In Gender in Grammar and Cognition, Barbara Unterbeck & Matti Rissanen (eds). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Davies, Wendy
(ed.) 2003 From the Vikings to the Normans. Oxford: OUP.
Davis, Craig
1999 Cultural historicity in The Battle of Maldon. Philological Quarterly 78: 151–69.
De Vincenzi, Marcia
1999 Differences between the morphology of gender and number: Evidence from establishing coreferences. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 28(5): 537–553.
De Vogelaer, Gunther
2009 Changing pronominal gender in Dutch: Transmission or diffusion? In Language Variation, European Perspectives II [Studies in Language Variation 5], Stavroula Tsiplakou, Marilena Karyolemou & Pavlos Pavlou (eds), 71–80. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
De Vos, Lien & De Vogelaer, Gunther
2011 Dutch gender and the locus of morphological regularization. Folia Linguistica 45(2): 245–281.
Deutsch, Avital & Bentin, Shlomo
1994 Attention mechanisms mediate the syntactic priming effect in auditory word identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 20: 595–607.
2001 Syntactic and semantic factors in processing gender agreement in Hebrew: Evidence from ERPs and eye movements. Journal of Memory and Language 45: 200–224.
Deutsch, Avital, Bentin, Shlomo & Katz, Leonard
1999 Semantic influence on processing syntactic rules of agreement: Evidence from Hebrew. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 28: 515–535.
diPaolo Healy, Antonette
(ed.) 2000 Dictionary of Old English Corpus in Electronic Form. Toronto: University of Toronto.
Dixon, Robert M. W.
1979 Ergativity. Language 55: 59–138.
Dolberg, Florian
2012 Gender change from Old to Middle English. In English Historical Linguistics 2010: Selected Papers from the Sixteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 16), Pécs, 23–27 August 2010 [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 325], Irén Hegedüs & Alexandra Fodor (eds), 263–288. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
2013a Quantifying gender change in Medieval English. In Scribes as Agents of Language Change, Esther-Miriam Wagner, Ben Outhwaite & Bettina Beinhoff (eds). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
2013b Subject to change: Decay and mutation of linguistic memory. In New Approaches to the Study of Linguistic Variability [Language Competence and Language Awareness in Europe 4] Markus Bieswanger & Amei Koll-Stobbe (eds). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Dressler, Wolfgang U., Mayerthaler, Willi, Panagl, Oswald & Wurzel, Wolfgang U.
1987 Leitmotifs in Natural Morphology [Studies in Language Companion Series 10]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Duby, Georges
1989 Die Frau ohne Stimme: Liebe und Ehe im Mittelalter. Berlin: Klaus Wagenbach.
Dumville, David N.
1983 Some aspects of annalistic writing at Canterbury in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Peritia 20: 23–57.
1992 Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar: Six Essays on Political, Cultural, and Ecclesiastical Revival. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.
Dumville, David N. & Keynes, Simon
1983 General Editors’ Foreword. In The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, MS B., Simon Taylor (ed.). Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
1986 General Editors’ Foreword. In The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, MS A., Janet Bately (ed.). Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
Ekwall, Eilert
1930 How long did the Scandinavian language survive in England? In A Grammatical Miscellany Offered to Otto Jespersen on his Seventieth Birthday, Niels Bøgholm, Aage Brusendorff & C. A. Bodelsen (eds), 17–30. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard.
Elenbaas, Marion
2007 The Synchronic and Diachronic Syntax of the English Verb-Particle Combination. Utrecht: LOT.
Ellis, Nick C.
2017 Salience in language usage, learning and change. In The Changing English Language: Psycholinguistic Perspectives, Marianne Hundt, Sandra Mollin & Simone E. Pfenninger (eds). Cambridge: CUP.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Enger, Hans-Olav
2004 Scandinavian pancake sentences as semantic agreement. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 27: 5–34.
2013a Scandinavian pancake sentences revisited. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 36(3): s 275–301.
2013b Inflectional change, ‘sound laws’ and the autonomy of morphology. The case of Scandinavian case and gender reduction. Diachronica 30(1): 1–26.
Enger, Hans-Olav & Corbett, Greville G.
2012 Definiteness, gender, and hybrids: Evidence from Norwegian dialects. Journal of Germanic Linguisitcs 24(4): 287–324.
Evans, Vyvyan & Green, Melanie
2006 Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: EUP.
Evison, Martin P.
2000 All in the genes? Evaluating the biological evidence of contact and migration. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 277–194.
Ewald, Petra
1992 Konkreta vs. Abstrakta. Zur semantischen Subklassifikation deutscher Substantive. Sprachwissenschaft 17: 259–281.
Falsetti, Anthony B. & Sokal, Robert R.
1993 Genetic structure of human populations in the British Isles. Annals of Human Biology 20(3): 215–219.
Fellows-Jensen, Gillian
2005 The Anglo-Scandinavian street-names of York. In Anglo-Scandinavian York. A Multi-disciplinary Survey [The Archaeology of York 8/5], R. A. Hall, A. J. Mainman, D. Tweddle, Gillian Fellows-Jensen, D. N. Parsons, H. K. Kenward, A. R. Hall, D. W. Rollason, T. P. O’Connor & M. Blackburn (eds). York: Council for British Archaeology.
Fillmore, Charles
1975 An alternative to checklist theories of meaning. Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 123–131. Amsterdam: North Holland.
1977 Scenes-and-frames semantics. In Linguistic Structures Processing, Antonio Zampolli (ed.), 55–82. Amsterdam: North Holland.
1982 Frame semantics. In Linguistics in the Morning Calm, Linguistic Society of Korea (ed.), 111–137. Seoul: Hanshin.
1985 Frames and the semantics of understanding. Quaderni di Semantica 6: 222–54.
Fillmore, Charles & Atkins, Beryl T.
1992 Toward a frame-based lexicon: The semantics of RISK and its neighbors. In Frames, Fields and Contrasts, Adrienne Lehrer & Eva Feder Kittay (eds), 75–102. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fischer, Andreas
2001 Lexical borrowing and the history of English: A typology of typologies. In Language Contact in the History of English, Dieter Kastovsky & Arthur Mettinger (eds.), 97–115. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Fjalldal, Magnus
2005 Anglo-Saxon England in Icelandic Medieval Texts. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Fletcher, Richard
1997 The Conversion of Europe from Paganism to Christianity, 376–1386 AD. London: Harper Collins.
Foot, Sarah
2004 Æthelstan (893/4–939). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/833 (29 June 2011).
Frenda, Alessio S.
2011 Gender in Irish between continuity and change. Folia Linguistica 45(2): 283–316.
Friederici, Angela D. & Jacobsen, Thomas
1999 Processing grammatical gender during language comprehension. Journal of Psycholingistic Research 28(5): 467–484.
Froschauer, Regine
2003 Genus im Althochdeutschen: Eine funktionale Analyse des Mehrfachgenus althochdeutscher Substantive. Heidelberg: Winter.
Giles, Howard, Coupland, Nicholas & Coupland, Justine
1991 Accommodation Theory: Communication, Context and Consequence. Cambridge: CUP.
Giles, Howard & Smith, Philip
1979 Accommodation Theory: Optimal levels of convergence. In Language and Social Psychology, Howard Giles & Robert St Clair (eds). Oxford: Blackwell.
Gilhooly, Ken J. & Logie, Robert H.
1980 Age of acquisition, imagery, concreteness, familiarity, and ambiguity measures for 1,944 words. Behaviour Research Methods & Instrumentation 12(4): 395–427.
von Glahn, Nikolaus
1918 Zur Geschichte des Grammatischen Geschlechts im Mittelenglischen vor dem völligen Erlöschen des aus dem Altenglischen ererbten Zustandes. Heidelberg: Winter.
Gneuss, Helmut
2008 More Old English from manuscripts. In Studies in Anglo-Saxon Culture Presented to Paul E. Szarmach, Virginia Blanton & Helene Scheck (eds). Tempe AZ: ACMRS.
Godden, Malcolm
2004 Ælfric of Eynsham (c.950–c.1010). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/187 (21 July 2011).
Görlach, Manfred
1986 Middle English – A Creole? In Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries, Vol. I: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics, Dieter Kastovsky & Aleksander Szwedek (eds). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2009 Borrowing as language conflict. In Handbook of Language and Communication: Diversity and Change, Marlis Hellinger & Anne Pauwels (eds), 715–749. Berlin: Mouton de Gryuter.
Goldberg, Adele E.
1995 A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago IL: Chicago University Press.
2006 Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalization in Language. Oxford: OUP.
Gould, Stephen J. & Vrba, Elisabeth
1982 Exaptation – A missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8(1): 4–15.
Gould, Stephen J.
1983 Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes. Further Reflections in Natural History. New York NY: Norton.
Gransden, Antonia
2004 Edmund [St Edmund] (d. 869). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8500 (16 October 2011).
Greenberg, Joseph H.
1978 How does a language acquire gender markers? In Universals of Human Language, Vol. 3: Word Structure, Joseph H. Greenberg (ed.), 47–82. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press.
Grice, Herbert P.
1975 Logic and conversation. In Syntax and semantics, Vol 3: Speech Acts, Peter Cole & Jerry L. Morgan (eds), 41–58. New York NY: Academic Press.
Gries, Stefan T.
2009 Statistics for Linguistics with R: A Practical Introduction. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Griffiths, David
2003 Exchange, trade and urbanization. In Davies (ed.), 73–104.
2013 Living in Viking-age towns. In Hadley & ten Harkel (eds), 1–13.
Grosjean, François, Dommergues, Jean-Yves, Cornu, Etienne, Delphine Guillelmon, Delphine & Besson, Carole
1994 The gender-marking effect in spoken word recognition. Perception & Psychophysics 56: 590–598.
Gurevich, Olga, Johnson, Matthew A. & Goldberg, Adele
2010 Incidental verbatim memory for language. Language and Cognition 2–1: 45–78.
Gurjanov, M., Lukatela, Georgije, Lukatela, K., Savić, M. & Turvey, Michael T.
1985 Grammatical priming of inflected nouns by the gender of possessive adjectives. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2(4): 692–701.
Hadley, Dawn M. & ten Harkel, Letty
2013 Preface. In Hadley & ten Harkel (eds), iv–xi.
(eds) 2013 Everyday Life in Viking-Age Towns: Social Approaches to Towns in Ireland and England c. 800–1100. Oxford: Oxbow.
Hadley, Dawn M. & Richards, Julian D.
(eds) 2000 Cultures in Contact: Scandinavian Settlement in England in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries [Studies in the Early Middle Ages 2]. Turnhout: Brepols.
Hall, J. R. Clark
1960 A concise Anglo-Saxon dictionary, 4th edn. Toronto: Toronto University Press.
Hammer, Michael F., Karafet, Tatiana M., Redd, Alan J., Jarjanazi, Hamdi, Santachiara-Benerecetti, Silvana, Soodyall, Himla & Zegura, Stephen L.
2001 Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity. Molecular Biology and Evolution 18(7): 1189–1203.
Hansen, Bente H.
1984 The historical implications of the Scandinavian linguistic element in English: A theoretical evaluation. North-Western European Language Evolution 4: 53–95.
Harding, Stephen E.
2002 Viking Mersey: Scandinavian Wirral, West Lancashire and Chester. Birkenhead: Countyvise.
Hart, Cyril
2004a Edward [St Edward; called Edward the Martyr] (c.962–978). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8515 (30 December 2011).
2004b Wulfstan (d. 955/6). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/50493 (12 June 2011).
Harris, Alice C. & Campbell, Lyle
1995 Historical Syntax in Cross-linguistic Perspective. Cambridge: CUP.
Hatcher, John & Bailey, Mark
2001 Modelling the Middle Ages. Oxford: OUP.
Haugen, Einar
1966 Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. Sociological Inquiry 36(2): 380–397.
Hawkins, John A.
1986 A Comparative Typology of English and German: Unifying the Contrasts. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Helsinki Corpus
1991 The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts. Helsinki: Department of Modern Languages, University of Helsinki.
Hiltunen, Risto
1983 The Decline of the Prefixes and the Beginnings of the English Phrasal Verb. Turku: Yliopisto.
Hines, John
1991 Scandinavian English: A creole in context. In Proceedings of the Eighths International Symposium on Language Contact in Europe, Douglas, Isle of Man 1988, P. Sture Ureland & George Broderick (eds). Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Hirt, Hermann
1932 Handbuch des Urgermanischen, Teil II: Stammbildungs- und Flexionslehre. Heiderberg: Winter.
Hock, Hans-Heinrich
1986 Principles of Historical Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Hockett, Charles Francis
1958 A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York NY: Macmillan.
Hodgkin, Robert Howard
1952 A History of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II, 3rd edn. London: OUP.
Hofmann, Dietrich
1955 Nordisch-englische Lehnbezeichnungen in der Wikingerzeit. Kopenhagen: Munksgaard.
Hoffmann, Paul
1909 Das grammatische genus in Layamons Brut. Halle: Niemeyer.
Hogg, Richard M.
1988 On the impossibility of Old English dialectology. In Luick Revisited, Dieter Kastovsky & Gero Bauer (eds), 183–203 Tübingen: Narr.
1992 Introduction. In The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. I: The Beginnings to 1066, Richard M. Hogg (ed.). Cambridge: CUP.
Home, Malasree
2007 The Peterborough Chronicle in context. In The Language of the Peterborough Chronicle, Alexander Bergs & Janne Skaffari (eds). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Hotta, Ryuichi
2012 The order and schedule of nominal plural formation transfer in three Southern dialects of Middle English. In English Historical Linguistics 2010: Selected Papers from the sixteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 16), Pécs, 23–27 August 2010 [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 325], Irén Hegedüs & Alexandra Fodor (eds). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Huddleston, Rodney & Pullum, Geoffrey
2002 The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP.
von Humboldt, Wilhelm
1820[1905] Über das vergleichende Sprachstudium in Beziehung auf die verschiedenen Epochen der Sprachentwicklung. In Wilhelm von Humboldts Werke, Vierter Band, Albert Leitzmann (ed.). Berlin: Behr.
Hunt, William & Costambeys, Marios
2004 Siward (d. 1048). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/25651 (1 July 2011).
Hunt, William & Smith, Mary Frances
2004a Æthelgar (d. 990). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8909 (29 June 2011).
2004b Eadsige (d. 1050). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8385b (1 June 2011).
Hunter Blair, Peter
1963[1965] Roman Britain and Early England, 55B.C.–A.D. 871. London: Nelson.
Huxley, Julian S. & Haddon, Alfred C.
1935 We Europeans. London: Cape.
Irvine, Susan
(ed.) 2004 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, MS E. Cambridge: Brewer.
Jagodziński, Grzegorz
2002 A Grammar of the Polish Language. http://grzegorj.w.interia.pl/gram/en/gram00.html (10 May 2013).
Jakobson, Roman
1960 Closing statement: Linguistics and poetics. In Style in Language, Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), 339–377. New York NY: The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology/John Wiley & Sons.
Jescheniak, Jörg D. & Levelt, Willem J. M.
1994 Word frequency effects in speech production: Retrieval of syntactic information and phonological form. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition 20(4): 824–843.
Jespersen, Otto
1905 Growth and Structure of the English Language. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner.
1927 The ending ‘-ster’. The Modern Language Review 22(2): 129–136.
1951 The Philosophy of Grammar. London: Allen Unwin.
Jobin, Bettina
2011 Semantically driven change in German(ic) gender morphology. Folia Linguistica 45(2): 317–353.
Johnson, Mark
1987 The Body in the Mind: The Bodiliy Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason. Chicago IL: Chicago University Press.
Jones, Charles
1967a The functional motivation of linguistic change. English Studies XLVIII: 97–111.
1967b The grammatical category of gender in early Middle English. English Studies XLVIII: 289–305.
1988 Grammatical Gender in English: 950 to 1250. London: Croom Helm.
Jones, Gwyn
1968 A History of the Vikings. Oxford: OUP.
Kastovsky, Dieter
1992 Semantics and vocabulary. In The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. I: The Beginnings to 1066, Richard M. Hogg (ed.). Cambridge: CUP.
2000 Inflectional classes, morphological restructuring, and the dissolution of Old English grammatical gender. In Gender in Grammar and Cognition, Barbara Unterbeck & Matti Rissanen (eds). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Keller, Rudi
2003 Sprachwandel: Von der unsichtbaren Hand in der Sprache, 3rd edn. Stuttgart: Francke/UTB.
Keller, Wolfgang
1900 Die litterarischen Bestrebungen von Worcester in angelsächsischer Zeit. Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach- und Culturgeschichte der germanischen Völker 84.
Kelly, Susan E.
(ed.) 2000 Anglo-Saxon Charters 7: Charters of Abingdon Abbey/Pt. 1. Oxford: OUP.
Ker, Neil R.
1957 Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Keynes, Simon
1978 The declining reputation of King Æthelred the Unready. In Æthelred the Unready: Papers from the Millenary Conference, David Hill (ed.), 227–253. Oxford: British Archaeological Records.
2009 Æthelred II (c.966 × 8–1016) In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8915 (30 November 2011).
King, Edmund
2004 Hugh Candidus [Hugh Albus] (c.1095–c.1160). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14057 (22 June 2011).
Knowles, David
1949 The Monastic Order in England: A History of its Development from the Times of St Dunstan to the Fourth Lateran Council 943–1216. Cambridge: CUP.
Kohlheim, Rosa & Kohlheim, Volker
2004 Duden Lexikon der Vornamen. Mannheim: Duden.
Konishi, Tomoshichi
1958 The growth of the verb-adverb combination in English: A brief sketch. In Studies in English Grammar and Linguistics. A Miscellany in Honour of Takanobu Otsuka, Kazuo Araki, Taiichiro Egawa, Toshiko Oyama & Minory Yasui (eds), 117–128. Tokio: Kenyusha.
Köpcke, Klaus-Michael
1982 Untersuchungen zum Genussystem der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Köpcke, Klaus-Michael & Zubin, David
2005 Nominalphrasen ohne lexikalischen Kopf – Zur Bedeutung des Genus für die Organisation des mentalen Lexikons am Beispiel der Autobezeichnungen im Deutschen. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 24: 93–122.
2009 Genus. In Deutsche Morphologie, Elke Hentschel & Petra M. Vogel (eds). Berlin: De Gruyter.
Köpcke, Klaus-Michael, Panther, Klaus-Uwe & Zubin, David
2010 Motivating grammatical and conceptual gender agreement in German. In Cognitive Foundation of Linguistic Usage Patterns, Hans-Jörg Schmid & Susanne Handl (eds), 171–194. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Körner, Karl
1888 Beiträge zur Geschichte des Geschlechtswechsels der englischen Substantiva. Inaugural-Dissertation. Greifswald: Julius Abei.
Körner, Sten
1964 The Battle of Hastings, England, and Europe 1035–1066. Lund: Gleerup.
Kornexl, Lucia
2009 Geschlechterdifferenz und ihre sprachliche Markierung: Zur historischen Entwicklung der personalen Wortbildung im Englischen. In Geschlechterdifferenz, und kein Ende? Sozial- und geisteswissenschaftliche Beiträge zur Genderforschung, Hella Ehlers, Heike Kahlert, Gabriele Linke, Dorit Raffel, Beate Rudlof & Heike Trappe (eds). Münster: LIT.
Labov, William
1994 Principles of Linguistic Change, Vol. I: Internal Factors. Oxford: Blackwell.
Landwehr, Max
1911 Das grammatische Geschlecht in der Ancren Riwle. Heidelberg: Universitäts-Buchdruckerei von J. Hörning.
Langacker, Ronald W.
1999 Grammar and Conceptualization. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Lange, Ulrich
(ed.) 2003 Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Neumünster: Wachholtz.
Laing, Margaret & Lass, Roger
2007- A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English, 1150–1350. Edinburgh: EUP. www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/laeme1.html (24 November 2012).
Lakoff, George
1987 Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.
1991 Metaphor and war: The metaphor system used to justify war in the Gulf. http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Texts/Scholarly/Lakoff_Gulf_Metaphor_1.html (26 July 2013).
2003 Metaphor and war, again. http://www.alternet.org/story/15414/metaphor_and_war,_again (26 July 2013).
Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark
1980 Metaphors We Live By. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.
1999 Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. New York NY: Basic.
Lakoff, George & Turner, Mark
1989 More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.
Lass, Roger
1990 How to do things with junk: Exaptation in language evolution. Journal of Linguistics 26: 79–102.
1992 Phonology and morphology. In The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol. II: 1066–1476, Norman F. Blake (ed.). Cambridge: CUP.
2006 Phonology and morphology. In A History of the English Language, Richard Hogg & David Denison (eds). Cambridge: CUP.
Latter, B. D. H.
1980 Genetic differences within and between populations of the major human subgroups. American Naturalist 116: 220–237.
Lawson, M. K.
2004 Cnut (d. 1035). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4579 on 2012–07–28>
Leslie, Stephen, Winney, Bruce, Hellenthal, Garrett, Davison, Dan, Boumertit, Abdelhamid, Day, Tammy, Hutnik, Katarzyna, Royrvik, Ellen C., Cunliffe, Bary
, Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium, Lawson, Daniel J., Falush, Daniel, Freeman, Collin, Pirinen, Matti, Myers, Simon, Robinson, Mark, Donnelly, Peter & Bodmer, Walter 2015 The fine-scale genetic structure of the British population. Nature 519: 309–314.
Lewontin, Richard Charles
1972 The apportionment of human diversity. Evolutionary Biology 6: 391–398.
Lindelöf, Uno
1893 Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Altnordhumbrischen. In Mémoires de la Société Néo-Philologique a Helsingfors I, Uno Lindelöf (ed.). Helsingfors: Imprimerie centrale de Helsingfors.
Loporcaro, Michele & Paciaroni, Tania
2011 Four-gender systems in Indo-European. Folia Linguistica 45(2): 389–433.
Loyn, Henry R.
1994 The Vikings in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell.
Luraghi, Silvia
2011 The origin of the Proto-Indo-European gender system: Typological considerations. Folia Linguistica 45(2): 435–464.
Lutz, Angelika
(ed.) 1981 Die Version G der angelsächsischen Chronik. Rekonstruktion und Edition. München: Fink.
2012 Norse influence on English in the light of general contact linguistics. In English Historical Linguistics 2010: Selected Papers from the sixteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 16), Pécs, 23–27 August 2010 [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 325], Irén Hegedüs & Alexandra Fodor (eds), 15–42. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Mätzner, Eduard Adolf Ferdinand
1880 Englische Grammatik, Band 1, 3rd edn. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.
Maier, Georg
2012 The Distribution of Pronoun Case Forms in Subject Predicative Complements in Varieties of English – A Corpus- and Web-based Study of Pronoun Case Variation. Hamburg: Universität Hamburg.
Markus, Manfred
1988 Reasons for the loss of gender in English. In Luick Revisited: Papers Read at the Luick Symposium at Schloss Liechtenstein, 15–18.9.1985, Dieter Kastovsky & Gero Bauer (eds). Tübingen: Narr.
Mason, Emma
2004 Wulfstan [St Wulfstan] (c.1008–1095). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30099 (8 June 2011)>
Mastana, Sarabijt S. & Sokol, R. J.
1998 Genetic variation in the East Midlands. Annals of Human Biology 25(1): 43–68.
Mayerthaler, Willi
1981 Morphologische Natürlichkeit. Wiesbaden: Athenaion.
McColl Millar, Robert
2000 System Collapse, System Rebirth. Oxford: Lang.
McIntosh, Angus, Samuels, M. L. & Benskin, Michael
1986 A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English, 4 Vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press.
McLeod, Shane
2011 Warriors and women: The sex ratio of Norse migrants to eastern England up to 900 AD. Early Medieval Europe 19(3): 332–353.
McWhorter, John H.
2002 What happened to English? Diachronica 19(2): 217–272.
2005 Defining Creole. Oxford: OUP.
Meillet, A.
1931 Essai de chronologie des langues indo-européennes: La theorie du feminin. Bulletin de la Société Linguistique de Paris 32:1–28.
Metcalf, David Michael
1978 Large Danegelds in relation to war and kingship: Their implications for monetary history, and some numismatic evidence. In Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxons England, Sonia Chadwick Hawkes (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology.
Miller, Sean
2004 Edward [Edward the Elder] (870s?–924). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8514 on 2011–06–08>
Mills, Anne E.
1986 The Acquisition of Gender. A Study of English and German. Berlin: Springer.
Milroy, James & Milroy, Lesley
1991 Authority in Language, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Mitchell, Bruce
1985 Old English Syntax, Vol. I: Concord, the Parts of Speech, and the Sentence, Vol. II: Subordination, Independent Elements and Element Order. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Mogk, Eugen
(ed.) 1886 Gunnlaugsaga Ormstungu. Mit einleitung und glossar. Halle: Niemeyer.
Morsbach, Lorenz
1913[1926] Grammatisches und psychologisches Geschlecht im Englischen. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.
Mossé, Ferdinand
1952 A Handbook of Middle English. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
Moulton, William
1988 Mutual intelligibility among speakers of early Germanic dialects. In Germania: Comparative Studies in the Old Germanic Languages and Literatures, Daniel G. Calder & T. Craig Christy (eds). Woodbridge: D.S. Brewer.
Mustanoja, Tauno F.
1960 A Middle English Syntax, Part I [Memoires de la Societe Neophilologique de Helsinki 23]. Helsinki: Societe Neophilologique.
Nei, Masatoshi & Roychoudhury, Arun K.
1974 Genic variation within and between the three major races of man, Caucasoids, Negroids, and Mongoloids. American Journal of Human Genetics 26: 421–443.
Nesset, Tore
2001 How pervasive are sexist ideologies in grammar? In Language and Ideology, Vol. 1: Theoretical Cognitive Approaches [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 204], René Dirven, Bruce Hawkins & Esra Sandikcioglu (eds), 197–226. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Nevalainen, Terttu
2006 An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: EUP.
Newton, Isaac
1676[1959] Letter to Robert Hooke, February 5, 1676. In The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, Vol. 1, Herbert W. Turnbull (ed.). Cambridge: CUP.
Nichols, Johanna
1998 The origin and dispersal of languages: Linguistic evidence. In The Origin and Diversification of Language [Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences 24], Nina Jablonski & Leslie C. Aiello (eds). San Francisco CA: California Academy of Sciences.
Norde, Muriel & Van de Velde, Freek
(eds) 2016 Exaptation and Language Change [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 336] Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Nübling, Damaris
2012 Auf dem Weg zu Nicht-Flektierbaren: Die Deflexion der deutschen Eigennamen diachron und synchron. In Nicht-flektierende Wortarten [Linguistik – Impulse & Tendenzen 47], Björn Rothstein (ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
2014a Die Kaiser Wilhelm – der Peterle – das Merkel. Genus als Endstadium einer Grammatikalisierung – und als Quelle von Re- und Degrammatikalisierungen. In Jahrbuch 2013 der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. Mainz: Franz Steiner.
2014b Das Merkel – Das Neutrum bei weiblichen Familiennamen als derogatives Genus? In Linguistik der Familiennamen, Friedhelm Debus, Rita Heuser & Damaris Nübling (eds). Heidelberg: Olms.
Nübling, Damaris, Busley, Simone & Drenda, Juliane
2014 Dat Anna und s Eva – Neutrale Frauenrufnamen in deutschen Dialekten und im Luxemburgischen zwischen pragmatischer und semantischer Genuszuweisung. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 81.
O’Brien O’Keeffe, Katherine
(ed.) 2001 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition: MS C. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
Obst, Wolfgang & Schleburg, Florian
2004 Lehrbuch des Altenglischen. Heidelberg: Winter.
Odenstedt, Bengt
1994 Who was Wulfstan? A new theory of ‘Ohthere’s and Wulfstan’s voyages. Studia Neophilologica 66: 147–157.
Page, Raymond Ian
1971 How long did the Scandinavian language survive in England? The epigraphical evidence. In England before the Conquest, Peter Clemoes & Kathleen Hughes (eds.), 165–181. Cambridge: CUP.
1999 An Introduction to English Runes. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
Pampel, Fred C.
2000 Logistic Regression: A Primer. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.
Panther, Klaus-Uwe
2009 Grammatische versus konzeptuelle Kongruenz. Oder: Wann siegt das natürliche Geschlecht? In An der Grenze zwischen Grammatik und Pragmatik, Rita Brdar-Szabó, Elisabeth Knipf-Komlósi & Attila Péteri (eds), 67–86. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Paraschkewoff, Boris
1974 Zur Entwicklung des qualitativen Adverbs Im Deutschen. Deutsch als Fremdsprache 11(5): 288–291.
Parkes, Malcolm B.
1976 The palaeography of the Parker manuscript of the Chronicle, laws and Sedulius, and historiography at Winchester in the late ninth and tenth centuries. Anglo-Saxon England 5: 149–171.
Peters, Hans
1981 Zum Skandinavischen Lehngut im Altenglischen. Sprachwissenschaft 6: 85–124.
Pfeifer, Wolfgang
(ed.) No year. Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. http://www.dwds.de/?qu=welsch (18 September 2013).
Philippsen, Max
1911 Die Deklination in den „Vices and Virtues”. Erlangen: Junge & Sohn.
Platzer, Hans
2001 ‘No sex, please, we’re Anglo-Saxon?’ On grammatical gender in Old English. Vienna English Working Papers 10: 34–47.
Plummer, Charles
1892[1952] Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, Vol. I: Text, Appendices and Glossary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1899[1952] Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, Vol. II: Introduction, Notes and Index. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Pollard, A. M., Ditchfield, P., Piva, E., Wallis, S., Falys, C. & Ford, S.
2012 ‘Sprouting like cockle amongst the wheat’: The St Brice’s Day Massacre and the isotopic analysis of human bones from St John’s College, Oxford. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 31(1): 83–102.
Pons-Sanz, Sara M.
2007 Norse-derived Vocabulary in Late Old English Texts: Wulfstan’s Works, a Case Study, 3rd edn [NOWELE Supplement Series 22]. Odense: University Press of Southern Denmark.
2008 Norse-derived terms and structures in the Battle of Maldon. Journal of English and Germanic Philology 107(4): 421–444.
2010 Norse-derived vocabulary in the Anglo-Saxon chronicle. In Reading the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Language, Literature, History [Studies in the Early Middle Ages 23], Alice Jorgensen (ed.), 275–304. Brepols: Turnhout.
2013 The lexical effects of Anglo-Scandinavian linguistic contact on old English. (Studies in the Early Middle Ages). Brepols: Turnhout.
Poole, Kristopher
2013 More than just meat: Animals in Viking-age towns. In Hadley & ten Harkel (eds), 144–156.
Pryce, Huw
2003 The christianization of society. In Davies (ed.), 139–167.
Pyles, Thomas
1964 The Origins and Development of the English Language. New York NY: Harcourt, Brace & World.
Quirk, Randolph & Wrenn, Christopher L.
1957 An Old English grammar. New York NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Radden, Günter & Dirven, Réne
2007 Cognitive English Grammar [Cognitive Linguistics in Practice 2]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Radin, Paul
1934 The Racial Myth. New York NY: McGraw-Hill.
Reuschel, Helga
(ed.) 1957 Gunnlaugs saga Ormstungu. Mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, Glossar und zwei Kartenskizzen. Halle: Niemeyer.
Richards, Julian D.
1991 Viking Age England. London: BCA.
Risse, Ursula
1980 Untersuchungen zum Gebrauch der Majuskel in deutschsprachigen Bibeln des 16. Jahrhunderts. Ein historischer Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Substantivgrossschreibung. Heidelberg: Winter.
Roberts, Derek F.
1985 Genetic structure in Orkney. Man 20: 131–141.
Robinson, Orrin W.
1992 Old English and its Closest Relatives: A survey of the Earliest Germanic languages. London: Routledge.
Roberts, Derek F.
1986 Who are the Orcadians? Anthropologischer Anzeiger 44(2): 93–104.
1990 Genetic affinities of the Shetland Islanders. Annals of Human Biology 17(2): 121–132.
Roberts, Derek F., Mitchell, R. J., Creen, C. K. & Jorde, L. B.
1981 Genetic variation in Cumbrians. Annals of Human Biology 8(2): 135–144.
Roberts, Stephen J.
2002 A History of Wirral. Chichester: Philimore.
Ronneberger-Sibold, Elke
1994 Konservative Nominalflexion und “klammerndes Verfahren” im Deutschen. In Funktionale Untersuchungen zur deutschen Nominal- und Verbalmorphologie, Klaus-Michael Köpcke (ed.), 115–130. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
2010 Der Numerus – das Genus – die Klammer. Die Entstehung der deutschen Nominalklammer im innergermanischen Vergleich. In Kontrastive Germanistische Linguistik, Teilband 2, Antje Dammel, Sebastian Kürschner & Damaris Nübling (eds), 719–748. Hildesheim: Olms.
Rositzke, Harry August
(ed.) 1940 The C-Text of the Old English Chronicles. Bochum-Langendreer: Heinrich Pöppinghaus.
Ross, Alan S. C.
1936 Sex and gender in the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 35: 321–30.
Rousseau, Jean-Jaques
1762[2010] Emile, or on Education. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/pedagogies/rousseau/index.html (23 September 2010).
Rubenstein, J. C.
2004 Eadmer of Canterbury (b. c.1060, d. in or after 1126). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8383 (1 June 2011).
Russell, Bertrand
1952[1997] Is there a God?. In The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, Vol. 11: Last Philosophical Testament, 1943–68, John C. Slater & Peter Kollner (eds). London: Routledge. http://www.cfpf.org.uk/articles/religion/br/br_god.htm (25 May 2011).
Sachs, Jacqueline S.
1967 Recognition memory for syntactic and semantic aspects of connected discourse. Perception and Psychophysics 2(9): 437–443.
Samuels, Michael L.
1963 Some applications of Middle English dialectology. English Studies 44: 81–94.
1972 Linguistic Evolution: With Special Reference to English. Cambridge: CUP.
Sasse, Hans-Jürgen
1993 Syntactic categories and subcategories. In Syntax: Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung/An International Handbook of Contemporary Research [Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft/Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication, 9], Joachim Jacobs, Arnim von Stechow, Wolfgang Sternefeld & Theo Vennemann (eds), 646–686. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Sawyer, Peter Hayes
1962 The Age of the Vikings. London: Edward Arnold.
1969 The two Viking ages of Britain – A discussion. Mediaeval Scandinavia 2: 163–207.
Sayles, George Osborne
1966 The Medieval Foundations of England. London: Methuen.
Scheler, Manfred
1977 Der Englische Wortschatz. Berlin: Erich Schmidt.
Schmidt, Rainer
1986 Was weiß der Artikel vom Hauptwort? Ein Beitrag zur Verarbeitung syntaktischer Beziehungen beim Lesen. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie 23(1): 150–163.
Schriefers, Herbert
1993 Syntactic processes in the production of noun phrases. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19: 841–850.
Searle, John R.
1969 Speech acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: CUP.
Seebold, Elmar
1992 Kentish and Old English texts from Kent. In Words, Texts and Manuscripts, Michael Korhammer, Karl Reichl & Hans Sauer (eds), 409–434. Cambridge: Brewer.
Sidebottom, Phil
2000 Viking age stone monuments and social identity in Derbyshire. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 213–235.
Siemund, Peter
2008 Pronominal Gender in English: A Study of English Varieties from a Cross-Linguistic Perspective. London: Routledge.
Siemund, Peter & Dolberg, Florian
2011 From lexical to referential gender: An analysis of gender change in medieval English based on two historical documents. Folia Linguistica 45(2): 489–534.
Sievers, Eduard
1882 Angelsächsische Grammatik. Halle: Niemeyer.
Silverstein, Michael
1976 Hierarchy of features and ergativity. In Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages [Linguistic Series 22], Robert M.W. Dixon (ed), 112–171. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
Smith, Adam
1790[2014] The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 6th edn. http://www.ibiblio.org/ml/libri/s/SmithA_MoralSentiments_p.pdf (13 April 2014).
Smith, Jeremy J.
2007 Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP.
2009 Old English: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: CUP.
Smyth, Alfred P.
1975 Scandinavian York and Dublin. Dublin: Irish Academic Press.
Stenroos, Merja
2008 Order out of chaos? The English gender change in the Southwest Midlands as a process of semantically based reorganization. English Language and Linguistics 12(3): 445–473.
Stenton, Doris Mary
(ed.) 1970 Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Stenton, Frank Merry
1942 The historical bearing of place-name studies: the Danish settlement of eastern England. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 42: 1–24.
1925[1970] The South-western element in the Old English Chronicle. In Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England, Doris Mary Stenton (ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1943[1989] Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: OUP.
Stevens, Stanley S.
1946 On the theory of scales of measurement. Science 103: 677–680.
Stocker, David
2000 Monuments and merchants: Irregularities in the distribution of stone sculpture in Lincolnshire and Derbyshire in the tenth century. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 179–212.
Strang, Barbara M. H.
1970 A History of English. London: Methuen.
Sundermann, Werner
1989 Mittelpersisch. In Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Rüdiger Schmitt (ed.), 138–164. Wiesbaden: Reichert.
Sweet, Henry
1909 First Middle English Primer. Oxford: Clarendon press.
Szemerényi, Oswald
1996 Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Taylor, Simon
(ed.) 1983 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition, MS B. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
Thim, Stefan
2008 The rise of the phrasal verb in English: A case of Scandinavian influence? In Anglistentag 2007, Münster: Proceedings, Klaus Stiersdorfer (ed.). Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag.
2012 Phrasal Verbs: The English Particle Construction and its History. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Thomas, Gabor
2000 Anglo-Scandinavian metalwork from the Danelaw. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 237–255.
Thomas, Hugh M.
2003a The significance and fate of the native English landowners of 1086. The English Historical Review 118: 303–333.
2003b The English and the Normans. Oxford: OUP.
Thomason, Sarah Grey & Kaufman, Terrence
1988 Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.
Thomason, Sarah Grey
2001 Language Contact: An Introduction. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Tichý, Ondřej
Timberlake, Alan
1977 Reanalysis and actualization in syntactic change. In Mechanisms of Syntactic Change, Charles N. Li (ed), 169–183. Austin TX: University of Texas Press.
Töpf, A. L., Gilbert, M. T. P., Dumbacher, J. P. & Hölzel, A. R.
2006 Tracing the phylogeography of human populations in Britain based on 4th–11th century mtDNA genotypes. Molecular Biology and Evolution 23(1): 152–161.
Townend, Matthew
2000 Viking age England as a bilingual society. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 89–105.
2002 Language and History of Viking Age England: Linguistic Relations between Speakers of Old Norse and Old English. Turnhout: Brepols.
Trafford, Simon
2000 Ethnicity, migration theory, and the historiography of the Scandinavian settlement in England. In Hadley & Richards (eds), 17–39.
Trask, Robert Laurence
1996 Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold.
Traugott, Elisabeth C.
2017 Low salience as an enabling factor in morphosyntactic change. In The Changing English Language: Psycholinguistic Perspectives, Marianne Hundt, Sandra Mollin & Simone E. Pfenninger (eds), 93–110. Cambridge: CUP.
Trudgill, Peter
1986 Dialects in Contact. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tummers, Jose, Heylen, Kris & Geeraerts, Dirk
2005 Usage-based approaches in Cognitive Linguistics: A technical state of the art. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 1–2: 225–261.
Vigliocco, Gabriella, Vinson, David P., Paganelli, Federica & Dworzynski, Katharina
2005 Grammatical gender effects on cognition: Inplications for language learning and language use. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 134: 501–520.
Vygotsky, Lev S.
1934[1962] Thought and Language. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.
Walker, Ian & Hulme, Charles
1999 Concrete words are easier to recall than abstract words – Evidence for a semantic contribution to short-term serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 25(5): 1256–1271.
Weinreich, Uriel
1953 Languages in Contact. Findings and Problems [Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York 1]. New York NY: Linguistic Circle of New York.
Weiss, Sabine & Rappelsberger, Peter
1996 EEG coherence within the 13–18 Hz band as a correlate of a distinct lexical organisation of concrete and abstract nouns in humans. Neuroscience Letters 209: 17–20.
Whitelock, Dorothy
1945a Scandinavian personal names in the Liber Vitae of Thorney Abbey. Saga-Book of the Viking Society 12: 127–153.
1945b The conversion of the eastern Danelaw. Saga-Book of the Viking Society 12: 159–176.
(ed.) 1954 The Peterborough Chronicle [The Bodleian Manuscript Laud Misc. 636]. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger.
(ed.) 1979 English Historical Documents, c. 500–1042. London: Eyre Methuen & OUP.
Whitelock, Dorothy, Douglas, David C. & Tucker, Susie I.
(eds) 1961 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Revised Translation. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode.
Whorf, Benjamin L.
1956 Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. New York NY: Wiley.
Williams, Ann
2003 Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King. London: Hambledon & London.
2004a Godwine, earl of Wessex (d. 1053). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10887 (31 May 2011).
2004b Hygeberht (d. in or after 803). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13223 (8 December 2011).
2004c Edgar (943/4–975). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8463 (30 December 2011).
Williams, Gareth
2013 Towns and identities in Viking England. In Hadley & ten Harkel (eds), 14–34.
Winford, Donald
2003 An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig
1921[1984] Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.
Wormald, Patrick
1999 The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century. Vol. I: Legislation and its Limits. Oxford: Blackwell.
2004 Wulfstan (d. 1023). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30098 (12 June 2011).
2006 Alfred (848/9–899). In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/183 on 2011–06–13>
Wrenn, Charles Leslie
1933 “Standard” Old English. Transactions of the Philological Society 32(1): 65–88.
Xueqin, Li, Harbottle, Garman, Zhang, Juzhong & Wang, Changsui
2003 The earliest writing? Sign use in the seventh millennium BC at Jiahu, Henan Province, China. Antiquity 77(295): 31–44.
Zaenen, Annie, Carlette, Jean, Garretson, Gregory, Bresnan, Joan, Koontz-Garboden, Andrew, Nikitina, Tatiana, O’Connor, M. Catherine & Wasow, Tom
2004 Animacy encoding in English: Why and how. In Proceedings of the 2004 ACL Workshop on Discourse Annotation Barcelona, July 2004, Donna Byron & Bonnie Webber (eds), 118–25. Stroudsburg PA: ACL.
Zoëga, Geir T.
1910 A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Zubin, David & Köpcke, Klaus-Michael
1981 Gender: A less than arbitrary grammatical category. In Proceedings of the Chicago Linguistic Society 17, Robert A. Hendrick, Carrie S. Masek & Mary Frances Miller (eds). Chicago IL: CLS.
1986 Gender and folk taxonomy. In Noun Classes and Categorization [Typological Studies in Language 7], Colette G. Craig (ed.), Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Subjects
Linguistics
BIC Subject: CFF – Historical & comparative linguistics
BISAC Subject: LAN009010 – LANGUAGE ARTS & DISCIPLINES / Linguistics / Historical & Comparative
U.S. Library of Congress Control Number: 2019007612